Consider the Topic of Sexual Ethics Essay

A. Introduction The issue of sexual ethics is concerned with the intimate relationships which we form. Three aspects currently under debate are cohabitation, polygamy and same sex relationships. B What do you think are the key issues in the debate? Any debate regarding sexual ethics lies in whether or not our behaviour is contrary to the teaching of Scripture. The difficulty for Anglicans however, lies in the fact that we also look to tradition and reason to guide us. 1. Cohabitation The question here is whether cohabitation is acceptable. Scriptural teaching regarding the sanctity of marriage[1] and the unacceptability of premarital sex[2] appears clear, but there are Anglicans who argue that a faithful and committed relationship with another person is acceptable in the eyes of God. 2. Polygamy This debate demonstrates the tension that exists between cultural practices and Christianity. It is an issue of particular significance within the West African Province where polygamy is common. The debate centres on what happens when a polygamist converts to Christianity, both in terms of their own practice and what it means for their spouses. Within the Old Testament, there is evidence that the practice of polygamy was acceptable[3] but there is no explicit teaching within the New Testament. [4] 3. Same Sex relationships This debate addresses whether homosexuality is acceptable according to Scripture and whether or not active homosexuals should be ordained or even consecrated, and whether those in same sex relationships should be allowed to be married or have their relationships blessed in Church? This debate also reminds Anglicans within the United Kingdom of the tensions between Church and State. The government’s Civil Partnerships Act 2004 allows registration of same sex relationships, and this has been followed up by the Marriages and Civil Partnerships (Approved Premises)(Amendment) Regulations 2011, which allows civil partnership ceremonies in places of worship.[5] The teachings of Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13; I Corinthians 6:9-10 and Romans 1:26-27 are often used as evidence against homosexuality, though there are some who argue that the relationships of Ruth and Naomi and David and Jonathan contradict this. C How is the Church going about debating these issues (what is the process and how is it going)? 1. Global Processes Anglicans rely on three Instruments of Communion, to provide guidance for global issues affecting the Anglican Church, with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as the focus of unity: 1. The Lambeth Conferences, held every 10 years 2. The Primates’ meetings 3. The Anglican Consultative Council. I. Lambeth Conferences In 1998, the Lambeth Conference issued Resolution 1.10 On Human Sexuality. [6] This laid out the position of the Church, affirming the sanctity of marriage and celibacy as an alternative. However the 2008 Conference did not re-open the debate, with Archbishop Rowan writing to the Primates before it to say: â€Å" In my judgement, we cannot properly or usefully re-open the discussion as if Resolution 1.10 of Lambeth 1998 did not continue to represent the general mind of the Communion.† I. Primates Meetings These are called at the request of the Archbishop of Canterbury, and can bridge the gap between one Lambeth Conference and the next. Primates’ Meetings were called in 2003 following Gene Robinson’s election as Bishop of New Hampshire, in the Episcopal Church of the USA. (ECUSA) This led to the reaffirmation of the Anglican Communion’s position as set out in Lambeth 1.10. It called for the voluntary withdrawal of the Anglican Church in Canada and ECUSA until the next Lambeth Conference in 2008, and for a Commission to look into the issue, resulting in the Windsor Report of 2004. II. Anglican Consultative Council. This meets every two to three years moving between the Provinces. It is composed of clergy and laity [7] . Its role can be shown by its response to the issue of polygamy. In 1984 it passed Resolution 18: â€Å"Be it resolved that this ACC-6 requests the Council for Anglican Provinces in Africa (CAPA) to study the issue of polygamy and the Christian family further in both its theological and pastoral dimensions and asks CAPA to co-ordinate the studies and to make available its findings to the Lambeth Conference of 1988.† 2. Local Processes In addition, Provinces and Dioceses also hold regular synods which provide an opportunity for issues specific to that body to be debated, such as the issue of polygamy. These are attended by representatives from the clergy and the laity. It was within this structure that the issue of same sex relationships became more prominent with the request of the Diocesan Synod of New Westminster Canada for the production of a rite of blessing for same sex unions and the election of Gene Robinson as bishop of New Hampshire in 2003. In response to the Primates’ Meeting and the Windsor Report, the General Convention of ECUSA met in 2006 & passed 6 Resolutions. 3. Informal Processes Besides these formal processes, there are also a number of informal ways in which this debate is being carried out amongst other members of the Anglican Communion. These include a number of internet websites and forums as well as through publications. Indeed the most prominent place for debate is often via the world’s media, though the reporting is not always as balanced as one might like. D And how do you think this discussion might in due course be resolved, without being untrue to the character of Anglicanism? The Anglican way would be to seek a compromise which would allow all parties to continue within the Communion.[8] In theory this would allow the various Provinces, to hold true to their beliefs. In 2008, Archbishop Rowan proposed a way forward which had been suggested in the Windsor Report (2004), namely the Anglican Covenant.[9] Although this seems to offer a possible solution, it is clear that in so doing it will fundamentally alter the nature of the Anglican Communion, with those who sign up accepting the consensus view on any issue. Perhaps this is true to the character of Anglicanism after all-for if we look back to the Reformation, underpinning it was the belief of churchmen at the time that â€Å"Ecclesia semper reformando† (the Church is always in need of reform). E. Conclusion The issue of sexual ethics is so complex because it generally provokes an emotional response in us. It is an issue where the tensions between church and state and Christian values and those of society are often at odds. For Anglicans the key challenge is how to keep a balance between Scripture, Tradition and Reason. Appendix 1: Lambeth Resolution 1.10 This Conference: a. commends to the Church the subsection report on human sexuality; b. in view of the teaching of Scripture, upholds faithfulness in marriage between a man and a woman in lifelong union, and believes that abstinence is right for those who are not called to marriage; c. recognises that there are among us persons who experience themselves as having a homosexual orientation. Many of these are members of the Church and are seeking the pastoral care, moral direction of the Church, and God’s transforming power for the living of their lives and the ordering of relationships. We commit ourselves to listen to the experience of homosexual persons and we wish to assure them that they are loved by God and that all baptised, believing and faithful persons, regardless of sexual orientation, are full members of the Body of Christ; d. while rejecting homosexual practice as incompatible with Scripture, calls on all our people to minister pastorally and sensitively to all irrespective of sexual orientation and to condemn irrational fear of homosexuals, violence within marriage and any trivialisation and commercialisation of sex; e. cannot advise the legitimising or blessing of same sex unions nor ordaining those involved in same gender unions; f. requests the Primates and the ACC to establish a means of monitoring the work done on the subject of human sexuality in the Communion and to share statements and resources among us; g. notes the significance of the Kuala Lumpur Statement on Human Sexuality[10] and the concerns expressed in resolutions IV.26, V.1, V.10, V.23 and V.35 on the authority of Scripture in matters of marriage and sexuality and asks the Primates and the ACC to include them in their monitoring process. Appendix 2: The Kuala Lumpur Statement on Human Sexuality – 2nd Encounter in the South, 10 to 15 Feb 97 God’s glory and loving purposes have been revealed in the creation of humankind (Rom. 1:18; Gen. 1:36, 27). Among the multiplicity of his gifts we are blessed with our sexuality. 1. Since the Fall (Gen. 3), life has been impaired and God’s purposes spoilt. Our fallen state has affected every sphere of our being, which includes our sexuality. Sexual deviation has existed in every time and in most cultures. Jesus’ teaching about lust in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:27-30) makes it clear that sexual sin is a real danger and temptation to us all. 2. It is, therefore, with an awareness of our own vulnerability to sexual sin that we express our profound concern about recent developments relating to Church discipline and moral teaching in some provinces in the North – specifically, the ordination of practicing homosexuals and the blessing of same-sex unions. 3. While acknowledging the complexities of our sexual nature and the strong drives it places within us, we are quite clear about God’s will in this area which is expressed in the Bible.   4. The Scripture bears witness to God’s will regarding human sexuality which is to be expressed only within the life long union of a man and a woman in (holy) matrimony.   5. The Holy Scriptures are clear in teaching that all sexual promiscuity is sin. We are convinced that this includes homosexual practices between men or women, as well as heterosexual relationships outside marriage. 6. We believe that the clear and unambiguous teaching of the Holy Scriptures about human sexuality is of great help to Christians as it provides clear boundaries.   7. We find no conflict between cleaer biblical teaching and sensitive pastoral care. Repentance precedes forgiveness and is part of the healing process. To heal spiritual wounds in God’s name we need his wisdom and truth. We see this in the ministry of Jesus, for example his response to the adulterous women, â€Å"†¦neither do I condemn you. Go and sin no more.† (John 8:11) 8. We encourage the Church to care for all those who are trapped in their sexual brokenness and to become the channel of Christ’s compassion and love towards them. We wish to stand alongside and welcome them into a process of being whole and restored within our communities of faith. We would also affirm and resource those who exercise a pastoral ministry in this area. 9. We are deeply concerned that the setting aside of biblical teaching in such actions as the ordination of practicing homosexuals and the blessing of same-sex unions calls into question the authority of the Holy Scriptures. This is totally unaccceptable to us. 10. This leads us to express concern about mutual accountability and interdependence within our Anglican Communion. As provinces and dioceses, we need to learn how to seek each other’s counsel and wisdom in a spirit of true unity, and to reach a common mind before embarking on radical changes to Church discipline and moral teaching. 11. We live in a global village and must be more aware that the way we act in one part of the world can radically affect the mission and witness of the Church in another Bibliography Chatfield, A. (2007) Something in Common. Nottingham, UK: St John’s Extension Studies. Coogan, M.D. (Ed.). (2007). The New Oxford Annotated Bible New Revised Standard Version. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Bradshaw, T (ed) (1997) The Way Forward? London, UK: Hodder and Stoughton. Linzey, A And Kirker R (eds) (2005) Gays and the Future of Anglicanism: Responses to the Windsor Report. Winchester, UK: O Books. http://www.churchofengland.org/our-views/marriage,-family-and-sexuality-issues.aspx http://www.globalsouthanglican.org/index.php/comments/the_kuala_lumpur_statement_on_human_sexuality_2nd_encounter_in_the_south_10/ [4] The early Church perhaps provides guidance with St Augustine stating in On Good Marriage: â€Å" And yet it is not allowed; and now indeed in our times, and after the usage of Rome neither to marry in addition, so as to have more than one wife living.† [5] Though not as yet in our Churches-as this would require a resolution at General Synod. [6] See Appendix 1 for the full resolution. [7] The Anglican Communion website defines its purpose as follows: â€Å"to facilitate the co-operative work of the churches of the Anglican Communion, exchange information between the Provinces and churches, and help to co-ordinate common action. It advises on the organisation and structures of the Communion, and seeks to develop common policies with respect to the world mission of the Church, including ecumenical matters. The ACC membership includes from one to three persons from each province. Where there are three members, there is a bishop, a priest and a lay person. Where fewer members are appointed, preference is given to lay membership.† (http://www.anglicancommunion.org/communion/acc/about.cfm) [8] The Windsor Report of 2004 affirmed the rights of Provinces and dioceses to self-government. [9] â€Å"Second, the controversies of recent years have spotlighted the difficulties we have as a Communion of making decisions in a corporate way. The Windsor Report raised this as a major question, and we shall need time to think about the Report’s theological principles and its practical suggestions, particularly the idea of a ‘Covenant’ for our Provinces, expressing our responsibility to and for each other.† (letter to Primates 2008) [10] See Appendix 2 ———————– Consider the topic of sexual ethics currently under discussion in the Anglican Communion today. Answer the following three questions on it: A. What do you think are the key issues in the debate? B. How is the Anglican Church going about debating these issues (what is the process, and how is it going)? C. And how do you think this discussion might in due course be resolved, without being untrue to the character of Anglicanism?

Essay of the Ideology and Social Base of Bharatiya Janata Party Essay

The Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) was formally launched as an independent political organisation in February 1980, after the split of the Janata Party on the R.S.S issue. Most of east while Jana Sangha members along with a few others, left the Janata Party to form the B.J.P. Thus the B.J.P. is a reincarnation of the Jana Sangha, the militant Hindu nationalist party founded in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee. The object of the Jana Sangha was the rebuilding of Bharat as a modern, democratic society in accordance with religious precepts. The party adopted four fundamentals one country, one nation, one culture and a rule of law that would determine its future course of action Nehru described the party as its â€Å"Illegitimate child.† Professor Rasheeduddin Khan has rightly remarked, â€Å"The BJP has prints of continuity with the Jana Sangha, in its discipline and well knit organisational set up and units linkage with the traditional Hindus socio-cultural organisations, the RSS a nd the VTTP.† Support Base: The BJP’s support base is essentially the same as that of the erst while Jana Sangha. It is a party of the urban educated Hindu middle classes professionals, small businessmen and white collar workers. In Gujarat, Maharashtra, Delhi and Rajasthan BJP is the ruling party with charismatic leaders like Suresh Meheta, Gopinath Mundle, Mandas Lai Khurana and Bhairon Singh shekhawat. But BJP’s most impressive performance was in Karnataka, U.P. and Gujarat in 1991 election. In all these states the BJP vote went up by over 20%. Gujarat represents the BJP’s most spectacular showing. Electoral Performance: In 1967, the party gave its full support to the SVD ministry in U.P headed by Charan Singh and it had 98 members in the Vidhan Sabha. In 1977, with 98 of its men in parliament under the Janata banner it received only three cabinet ministership. In 1980 the party backed Jagajivan Ramand in 1983 with their 18 members in the Karnataka legislature the BJP supported R.K. Hegde who was then of a minority The BJP bore V.P. Singh on its shoulders after he formed the Jana Morcha. In 1984 during its worst showing only 2 Lok Sabha seats it still polled 7.4% of the national votes ahead of the Janata’s 6.7 percent and the Lok Dai’s 5.6. Ideology and Programme: The BJP believes in Gandhian socialism. The party says that its socialism is inspired not only bi Gandhi and JP but also by a Deen Dayal Upadhyaya. It stands for positive secularism and clean government while laying emphasis! on the ‘Hindus Idiom’ on its poll manifesto, the party stands for justice for all and appeasement of none. Policy of reservations for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes apply the same policy to the backward castes broadly in line with the recommendation of the Mandal Commission. The party also favours smaller and stronger states desires to abolish Article 370, favours uniform civil code and would like to establish Human Rights Commission. BJP – RSS Relationship: The Jana sangh has been closely associated with the RSS. The RSS has served as the organizational base for the party. The BJP being its successor, what type of relationship it has with the RSS? The official stand of the BJP and the RSS is that those are two separate organizations working in two different -fields. Besides they do not interfere in each others work. But an over whelming majority of the BJP workers have RSS background. Therefore a large number of people think that the two organizations belong to the one and some family. Even the BJP has reaffirmed its RSS link. It seems this link as vital to its newly emphasized commitment to national unity since it believes that the RSS’s patriotism is unmatched. It is’ in fact proud of its link with RSS. The BJP is now being viewed as an alternative to the century partoes that have so far had a monopoly on power.

Women in the Soviet Union

Women in the Soviet Dictatorship How were the lives of Soviet women affected by the policies of the Stalin era? Document 1 Source: Izvestiia, â€Å"Old Way of Life,† March 8, 1930. Document 2 Source: Pravda, â€Å"On the Path to a Great Emancipation,† March 8, 1929. Today is international communist women’s day, the international day for working women. Today is a holiday in honor of one-half of the international proletarian army and in honor of the women workers of the socialist Soviet Union.In our country, governed by the power of the proletariat, the day of the woman worker has been consciously designated as a political and cultural â€Å"great day. † And outside the Soviet borders, in places where capitalist bondage has not been overthrown, we are certain that conscientious, advanced women workers will today demonstrate their dedication to the cause of the international revolution and their indestructible solidarity with the working women and men of the Soviet Union. Our woman worker in the past . . during the barbaric, savage, and blood stained tsarist regime. The heavy and hopeless fate of the woman worker—as mother, wife, and girl. All of the striving of the woman worker toward the light, toward freedom, and to a human existence were snuffed out by the criminal arm of the autocracy. The exploitation and debasement were tripled: in politics, in factory labor, and in daily life. Working women in capitalist countries. Capitalist â€Å"democracy† has not and cannot give freedom to working and laboring women.Working women in all bourgeois countries are economically and politically enslaved. Middle class conventionality has a tenacious vice-grip on daily life. Advanced women workers and revolutionary women proletarians are persecuted. The most brutal blows of capitalist â€Å"rationalization,† unemployment, and hunger in the midst of plenty descend upon the female half of the proletariat. Fascism, Catholicism, and reformism with increasingly thoroughness exploit the historical backwardness of women orkers in order to split apart the proletarian ranks and strengthen the position of imperialism. The temples of â€Å"national government†Ã¢â‚¬â€what a thing to talk about! —are protected by stone walls which prevent the participation of working women. Only we in the Soviet Union have at hand all of the preconditions and foundations for the complete emancipation of working women. These preconditions were created and acquired in a severe struggle with enemies, at a time when world history passed over the heights of the great October summit.Only our women have been emancipated in practice, acting as conscious builders of a new society and a new governing commune, and speaking out as active citizens with fully equal rights in the socialist family. For more than eleven years, our woman worker has made her way along the path set by the proletarian dictatorship. Together with all the prol etariat she fought for power in October. Together with her working brothers she passed through the crucible of sacrifice and suffering during the civil war. She stands in the most advanced ranks of our working collective in the present-day glorious and productive period of socialist construction.In the factory workshop and at the controls of the state ships, in the cooperatives and at the shooting range, in the nursery school and at the thundering machinery, everywhere the tractors of our increasingly strong state farms and collective farms are plowing the virgin soil of our Soviet land, in the workers’ faculties and in courses for the red sisterhood where the proletariat struggles relentlessly to master science, and everywhere that life is in full swing and the anthills of labor are humming—in none of these places have the working women of the Soviet Union been forced into last place.Everywhere the vigorous stream of activism of our women workers is flowing. With ever more firm and certain steps they are advancing on the path to complete emancipation under the tested leadership of our Party. Needless to say, without the conscious and active participation of the working woman we will not fulfill the tasks defined by Lenin and by the entire development of the October revolution. We will not achieve the rapid tempo of socialist industrialization if the woman worker turns out to be passive.We will not achieve the complete cultural revolution if the woman worker remains â€Å"on the side,† or is somehow pushed off toward â€Å"the second rate plan. † For the successful completion of all these tasks we must mobilize the entire women’s active. Recruitment of the best women into the Party and the courageous and steadfast advancement into the soviets, management and cooperative duties, and the governing apparatus—these measures will ensure the actual emancipation of women who remain backward in comparison with our general leve ls of economic and cultural development.The maximum activism of all women proletarians and conscientious working peasant women is one of the indispensable guarantees of our further successes and our victorious socialist growth. The greatest possible and most inexhaustible activism, the unceasingly creative work of the woman proletarian on all large and â€Å"small† fronts of our life, their rigid and total solidarity with the Party—these are the obligatory conditions for our creativity.The struggle for a new cultured life—is this possible without the creative initiative of the woman worker? The struggle with alcoholism and disgusting drunken debauchery and the struggle to expel the green hydra from the Soviet home—are these conceivable without the will and determination, without the intensive and constant force of the working woman? Could the struggle with such social ulcers as prostitution proceed successfully without arousing and involving hundreds of t housands of working women?And the struggle to overcome difficulties, the struggle with our many-faceted class enemies, the struggle with anti-Semitism, with the priesthood, and with religious stupefication—are these goals attainable if the campaign against these barbarisms does not include the millions of working women and if they are not advanced into the leading positions? All of these tasks need to be accomplished, and they will be accomplished. The path to the complete emancipation of working women is clear. No force has concealed it.And not only today, on the red holiday of March 8, should we take note of and strongly emphasize the great challenges facing the women’s proletarian movement. These should be remembered constantly, they should become part of our everyday â€Å"routine† of socialism. For surely we are talking about one of the greatest tasks that has been set by history: the complete liberation and emancipation of working women from any kind of ex ploitation, from material need, from lack of culture, and from barbarism. Document 3 Source: Minkin, Z. â€Å"The Bolshevik factory still does not have any women-master workers. Rabochii, July 7, 1931. In the past year, in connection with the overall growth in production, new ranks of women workers have flowed into the â€Å"Bolshevik† factory. At the present time, women make up 26. 2 percent of all workers at the factory. A large share of the newly entered women workers are the wives of workers who had already been working at the plant. As a result, the status of mass cultural and political educational work among these workers has clear significance. At the â€Å"Bolshevik† factory, 79 percent of women workers are shock workers.But the Party stratum among women workers is only 9. 2 percent, whereas it has reached 30 percent among all workers at the factory. This clearly indicates that recruitment among women workers is insufficient. The promotion of women into more q ualified jobs and the training of women to take the place of men’s labor within certain limits has been unsatisfactory within this factory. Many older women workers, who have worked for a long time at the factory, have been assigned to work not requiring qualifications and thus have not progressed any further.For example, at jobs near the presses, near the finishing machines, or involving work as planers, the number of women workers can be counted on a single hand. Yet a large share of women workers are assigned to unskilled labor not requiring any qualifications. It is sufficient to note that not a single woman worker can be found among the staff of master workers, despite the presence of a number of women workers who have already worked many years in factory, have sufficient qualifications, and could be assigned to this work.Because of the shortage of master workers, it happens that when the master worker of a particular section or workshop has to be away for several days, no one is available to take his place. Yet if the desire were there, it would not be difficult to train a couple of women to become master workers. It would also be possible to train a large number of women workers for other kinds of qualified positions. The situation is no better regarding the development of mass work among women workers. It is true that 14 percent of women workers received various kinds of awards for their shock work.A group made up of activist women workers is coming together. But inadequate efforts among women workers has meant that only 2 percent participating in rationalization measures. The percent of women workers in all kinds of public organizations is lower than the percent of men workers. The weakness of work among women workers is explained by the â€Å"absence of personal responsibility† in this area. Women’s organizers change frequently, and as a result this work is quite unsatisfactory. Document 4 Source: Pravda Severa, â€Å"Maria Seme novna Requires Assistance from the Party Collective,† September 9, 1932.In its day to day work with women, the Party constantly implements the instructions of V. I. Lenin â€Å"to bring women into public and productive work and to pull them out of ‘domestic slavery’ by freeing them from subordination to the stupification and humiliation of always and forever being responsible for cooking and taking care of the children. † But officials of the Party collective and of the factory committee and the directors of timber mill No. 23 still have not understood this objective.Pravda Severa has already written more than once about Maria Semenovna Abramova, and has repeatedly demanded that the Party collective of the factory committee and directors of factory No. 23 earnestly take up the tasks of eliminating lines at the stores and improving the work of nursery schools and kindergartens, so that Maria Semenovna [Abramova] and all the other housewives of the factory ma y be liberated from the absurd lines and kitchen fumes which wash away all the strength of women, isolate them from production and cultural activities, and undermine the completion of the production plan.Despite the fact that two months have already passed since Pravda Severa raised these questions, conditions at the factory have not changed at all. As before, Maria Semenovna spends her days standing in line for bread, herrings, and milk, and as before she rushes around the kitchen preparing supper for her kids. She tries with all her might to get away from this â€Å"vicious† circle, but she cannot. She tried to work at the factory, but had to quit work after ten days, because the horrible work of the childcare center left her children going hungry and without supervision.As a result, her youngest son became sick, and this tied the hands of Maria Semenovna. The medical assistance was also quite poor. Neither the Party collective nor the factory committee have lifted a finger to improve any of these awful conditions and they have also made no effort to keep Maria Semenovna at work in the factory. The secretary of the Party collective Lukin says that they have decided to reform their efforts in ZRK and have assigned one person in the supply department to eliminate lines at the stores, but in fact nothing has changed in this area.At the present time, the Party collective does not even have a women’s organizer, which is evidence for judging the efforts of the Party collective to organize women and to draw housewives like Maria Semenovna into the public and political life of the factory. We categorically demand that the Party collective and the factory committee immediately turn their attention to issues of women’s work, to freeing housewives from the tenacious grip of lines, to ensuring the consistent work of nursery schools, and to drawing women into socially productive labor.Document 5 Source: Za kommunisticheskoe prosveshchenie, â€Å"Sch ool No. 130 Follows its own Law,† February 6, 1937. In the Soviet Union, the rights of mothers and children are strictly protected by the law. For example, in addition to a four month maternity leave, every working mother has the right to take breaks during work for nursing until the infant reaches the age of nine months. But it seems that the administration of school 130 in the Soviet district of Moscow considers that this rule does not apply to its school.I have worked as a teacher for nine years, and am in my first year at school 130. Returning from maternity leave, I placed my infant in a nursery school. At first, I was able to nurse him regularly, every three hours. But because I could not nurse my infant during the break between classes (20 minutes), I was always late by 10-15 minutes. These minutes of tardiness were not absences, because I have the right to an additional half-hour besides these 20 minutes for nursing my infant.But the head of instruction and the school director, after repeated warnings, have ordered me to either stop nursing my infant or quit working in the school, because they consider that the class (42 pupils) cannot and should not be left without a teacher for even a minute. I completely agree with the orders of the head of instruction and the school director that pupils should not be left without a leader for even the shortest amount of time. But it does not follow from this that I, as a teacher-mother, am not able to lead the children in lessons. This unequal battle has resulted in the victory of the school administration.Despite the orders of a doctors, I had to stop nursing my infant and switch to artificial food, which quickly had a negative effect on the child’s health. I consider that the approach to me taken by the head of instruction and the school director demonstrates an unwillingness to let a teacher-mother have normal conditions for bringing up a healthy infant. It is possible to find a solution to this sit uation that does not harm the children and does not violate Soviet law by providing a substitute during this break or by drafting a schedule so that the pupils have another teacher after three hours.I love the work of teaching and do not want to give it up because of this temporary condition. In the current situation, I demand only that the administration of school 130 provide a little flexibility and human sympathy, so that I can continue working and bringing up my infant normally. Document 6 Source: Chart of â€Å"Women in the Soviet Labor Force: Total Number and Percent of Workforce. † In Zhenshchina v SSSR (Moscow, 1936). Document 7 Source: Chart of â€Å"Women in the Soviet Union and Capitalist Countries. In Zhenshchina v SSSR (Moscow, 1936). Document 8 Source: Pravda, â€Å"International Communist Woman’s Day,† March 9, 1939. In the Bol’shoi Theater, a celebration of March 8, International Communist Women’s Day, occurred yesterday, organized by the Moscow Committee of the All Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), the Moscow Soviet, and the VTsSPS, in conjunction with party and soviet organizations, Stakhanovites, shock workers, and the Soviet intelligentsia of the city of Moscow.The hall was more than filled to capacity, and burst into warm applause when at the presidium appeared the leaders of Moscow party and soviet organizations and the VTsSPS, and the famous women and heroes of the Soviet Union, the heroines of labor and award-winners whose names are familiar to the entire nation. The meeting opened with a welcoming speech by comrade Popov, the secretary of the Moscow city committee of the VKP(b). Places at the presidium were taken by comrades Shcherbakov, Chernousov, Pronin, Shvernik, Marshal of the Soviet Union Budennyi, Nikolaeva, Marina Raskova, Valentina Grizodubova, Polina Osipenko, Zinaida Troitskaia, T.Fedorova, Evdokiia and Mariia Vinogradova, O. Leonova, and others. Comrade Fedorova proposed to elect an hon ored presidium. The first name nominated was comrade Stalin. Shouts of â€Å"hurrah† and exclamations of â€Å"Long live our own Stalin! † and â€Å"We raise our banner to salute Stalin! † rolled through the hall. Accompanied by stormy applause from all participants in the celebratory meeting, the candidates elected to the honorary presidium included the members of the Politburo of the Communist Party led by comrade Stalin, as well as comrades Dimitrov, Tel’man, and Pasionaria.The secretary of the VTsSPS, comrade Nikolaeva, made a speech about International Communist Woman’s Day: â€Å"We have assembled on the eve of historic events. In two days, the voice of the leader of the people, comrade Stalin, will be heard from the tribunal of the XVIII Congress of our party. Comrade Stalin will describe the results of the gigantic victories won by our country, and will set out the path toward solving the even greater tasks set by the third five year plan. Comrade Nikolaeva talked about the rise of the Soviet woman, about the heroic and energetic path taken by women of our country, and about the concern for women shown by the Soviet government and party of Lenin-Stalin. In her speech, comrade Nikolaeva referred to clear evidence that the Soviet woman had secured an honored place on all fronts of socialist development and in all areas of the political and public life of our country. The deputies to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR include 189 women, and the deputies to the Supreme Soviets of the union republics include 848 women.What a clear example of the growth of the political activism and the political maturity of the Soviet woman! Comrade Nikolaeva spoke about the heroism of the Soviet woman and the unforgettable flight taken by V. Grizodubova, P. Osipenko, and M. Raskova. The heroines were located right there, on the presidium, and the hall greeted them with warm applause. Comrade Nikolaeva described how Soviet women had mastered technology and knowledge and had become powerful economic leaders.She cited the example of Zinaida Troitskaia, who successfully mastered the complex craft of driving a locomotive engine, became an engineer, and now is the director of the Moscow regional railway. Zinaida Troitskaia was also located right there on the presidium, and her success was recognized with warm applause. Speakers also talked about the tremendous assistance that had been provided to the woman in our country by the Soviet government and the party of Lenin-Stalin, about the many millions of benefits given to mothers with many children, and about the steady growth in he number of nurseries and kindergartens. Expressing the thoughts and feelings of the entire hall, speakers referred to the warm sympathy felt by Soviet women for the women of China and Spain, who were heroically fighting for the honor and independence of their homelands against fascist invaders. After her speech, Hero of the Soviet Union Marina Rasko va proposed to send a letter of greeting to comrade Stalin on behalf of the assembly. With a warm ovation, the hall approved this heartfelt greeting.

Community Cohesion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Community Cohesion - Essay Example Some Major Housing Policies and Their Role in Community Cohesion: Choice based lettings or CBL is a social housing allotment system. Social housing allocations give individuals the right to practice their own discretion while choosing a social housing property. To apply for getting a house in a comfortable society is the main thing that strengthens the attachment between a person and the community to which he belongs. The policy is based on the idea of making the community more comprehensive, practicable and firm. Moreover, it aims at achieving a nationwide success by the year 2010. People belonging to every community have their certain choices and Choice Based Lettings is such a policy that enables them to choose property according to their tastes. For that reason the system automatically brings like-minded people together to a certain area establishing effective community cohesion among them. Currently, CBL makes the opportunity of choosing property not only available to the rich, but also to the lower middle class families. Houses are to be rent ed that have been brought under the coverage of CBL and this scrupulous step has been very constructive for people belonging to the above-mentioned group. For that reason, this policy has been able to bring people with equal affordability jointly resulting in the establishment of community cohesion from the perspective of economy. (Cantle, 2005) A number of the most underprivileged regions in UK have always made community cohesion a difficult task for the government. Therefore, it has always been the UK government's look out to solve their problems in an organized and intensive way. The main focus was to bring the complementary neighbourhoods as one. New Deal for Communities is an approach of UK government to tackle this...A call for community cohesion as a part of UK housing policy was felt soon after Bradford, Oldham and Burnley was beset by a series of ethnic disturbances in 2001. These localities have failed to establish Britain as a successful multicultural state in the eyes of the common man. The urban unrest in Bradford, Oldham and Burnley questioned the efficacy of housing departments and local councils in maintaining social and economic equality. The segregation of the traditional ethnic groups from the deprived communities indicated a ‘lack of community cohesion’. Soon after the London Bombings of July, 2005, the need for community cohesion to combat fundamentalism and terrorism became all the more indispensable. The Institute for Community Cohesion did not agree to the idea of fighting extremism as the only possible measure to promote community consciousness, as this overlooked the other divisive forces in society. (Wetherell, Laflà ¨che, Berkeley, 2007) The initial initiatives of the government to build community cohesion were looked upon as a measure to wipe out racial tensions and strife in the ethnically estranged communities, borne out of deprivation and lack of scope for spatial communication. While the authorities in favour of community cohesion to fight ethnic differences contend that expanding its scope would constrain its effectiveness in dealing with racial differences, there are others, who support the broader scope of community cohesion, argued that a variety of community differences required to be addressed, both within and beyond the community.

How globalization benefits America's economy Essay

How globalization benefits America's economy - Essay Example The recent advancement in Asian economy is really transforming the world and the notion that globalization only makes the rich richer and the poor poorer is disputable according to Wolf. He supports international economic integration as the reason behind success of many countries. However, Wolf says that different countries success is not attributed to full adoption of the neo liberal policies rather by instituting their own policies intended to enter market economy. He further argues that growth weighting distribution amongst nations by population shows that the most important things is the people but not countries themselves thus making it important only to consider income distribution alone. Inequality changes amongst world individuals are contributed by changes in the relative wealth of countries such that if the performance is low, the decline in inequality also changes. However, it should be noted that most countries have not fully benefited from globalization especially in Afr ica, Asia and Latin America countries (Wolf, 2004). The rapid growth of economies brought about by globalization has immensely reduced the level of poverty especially in east of Asia but went up in Eastern Europe, central Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. There was also general increase of life expectancy in developing countries though the growth was challenged by the AIDS epidemic and malaria. Moreover, globalization has reduced infant mortality and boosted literacy level in developing countries and the world as a whole. There has also been recommendable increase in food production thus lowering undernourishment issues globally. Finally, Wolf has noted that child labor has tremendously reduced because most parents have opted to taking their children to school (Wolf, 2004). Concepts Central to the Argument One of the most important arguments that has dominated the text is that globalization has negatively affected economies of most countries. This is very wrong and I really concur with W olf that globalization has instead boosted the economy of a good number of countries especially in Asia. The author has noted India and China as some of the beneficiaries of globalization. However, their success is attributed to the policies of individual countries towards globalization (Wolf, 2004). Countries have worked hard by adopting policies that can see them succeed in the wider market that has been brought about by globalization. The effect of globalization is therefore very intense and has positively developed most of the world economies especially countries that were once considered poor. Living standards and income per capita has greatly increased in most of the countries that took advantage of globalization. Nevertheless, some countries have not experienced the benefits of globalization because they have not changed their policies to properly fit in the international market (Wolf, 2004). Moreover, criteria used in measuring economic progress by World Bank are clearly uns atisfactory. The method of measuring economic progress and income per capita as used by world ban is not the best. Wolf argued that population of a country does not reflect failure or difficulty in economic progress by highlighting India and China which are the most populated countries yet making positive economic progress. Average incomes of the world cannot be weighted by population and accurate results be found (Wolf, 2004). This is because even amongst the less and densely

Child Labor in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Child Labor in America - Essay Example Traditionally, slavery has been considered as a means for promoting the interests of specific groups of the society. In the long past, slavery was considered as part of most countries’ social and economic life. The development of international law has led many people to believe that slavery would be significantly limited, a target that, even today, seems quite difficult to be achieved. In accordance with a report of 2000, the people suffered from slavery globally are estimated to 27 million (New York Times 2000).Moreover, it has been proved that the terms of slavery have been changed. People with significant economic or social power are no more, at least not exclusively, responsible for the development of slave. People of average income are likely to force other people to slavery. At the same time, slavery is no more an issue of race; rather people of all races are forced to slavery, in various forms, a fact that proves the severe gaps of national and international laws in reg ard to the specific issue. Particular emphasis should be given on child labor, which is highly developed worldwide. In USA, about 45,000 women and children are forced to non-decent jobs annually, as reported by the Central Intelligence AgencyIt seems that the promotion of slavery worldwide has supported the increase of child labor under terms which can be characterized as quite unfair and cruel, taking into consideration the fact that children who are forced to work do not have, usually, access to education, as other children worldwide. The modern forms of slavery are analyzed in the article of Lehoczky (2000); the above researcher notes that, today, slavery is more expanded and more difficult to be controlled than in the past. At the next level, Lehoczky (2000) refers to the view of Bales who noted that today slaves exist not only in countries of the Third World, but also ‘in London and Paris’ (Lehoczky 2000). In such environment, child labor has been significantly exp anded. An example of the extension of the particular phenomenon is the following one, as described by Bales, the views of whose on slavery have been incorporated in the article of Lehoczky: a North African girl was taken, as a child, by a France family, who ensured that they were going to pay for her studies, under the terms that the girl would work for them (Bales, in Lehoczky 2000). The result was that the girl was forced to work, being also abused, at such level that when she grew up her level of consciousness was that of a child (Bales, in Lehoczky 2000). The above example shows the potential effects, and the cruelty, of child labor even in developed countries, where, normally, no such phenomena would be expected to exist. Kevin Bales, ‘a professor of sociology at Roehampton University in London’ (Vision Media 2007), has been trying, for many years, to combat slavery. In accordance with Bales, slavery has been traditionally based on economics, meaning that people ar e likely to force others to slavery in order ‘to make a profit’ (Vision Media 2007). At the next level, Bales notes that the control of slavery is often quite difficult, being covered under processes which seem to be legal; an indicative example is the provision by Japan of about ‘100,000 entertainer – visas annually’ (Vision Media 2007). As a result, thousands of young girls have entered Japan, being promised that they were going to work; in practice, these girls end up in slavery (Vision Media 2007). Specifically, regarding the child labor, Bales notes that the problem has become major not just in developing countries, but also in developed countries, even in USA where significant efforts have been made for controlling the particular phenomenon. In fact, it seems that in USA children work in the production line of well known brands, such as GAP and NIKE (Bales 1999, p.236). The expansion of child labor can be made clear

BUS503 - Org. Change and Transformation Mod 5 SLP Essay

BUS503 - Org. Change and Transformation Mod 5 SLP - Essay Example Companies that attempt a change fail because of the unexpected barriers so it is important to understand them. Though these leaders are not effective, they have been there a long time and they are well known by everyone. There will certainly be some individual contribution to putting up barriers to this part of the change. There will be disbelief, anger, and reluctance on the part of the employees. The board will be to initiate this change right away. They will have to establish a sense of urgency, assuring that the plan is fully defined and skillfully present the plan to the hospital. They will have to be sure to include all of the benefits this transition will bring to the hospital employees. Publicize any success that is possible right away (Jick & Peiperl, 2007) and try to separate the change from the past. There are both individual and structural barriers here. There will be a sense of loss of power to that management group that is left which is essentially an individual barrier. The mid level directors for example. This fear of loss of power will also cause a barrier to the change with managers dragging their feet and even manipulating to cause problems with the change. This will need to be handled right away not allowed to sit so it will not get out of hand. Bringing this group in ahead of time and showing them what the change could mean for them and for their staff will be very important. It will be important here also to establish a sense of urgency in convincing the management staff of this change. Incentives are a good thing to use in this instance assuring that both formal and informal leaders are on the side of the change. Complacency cannot be tolerated during this process and it is essential to assure that everyone is on the side of the change (Kotter, 2007). The board will need to continue to bring about this part of the change. Once the management and senior management group are aligned and the plan is organized

Should a company hire new workers or outsource an HRM function due to Term Paper

Should a company hire new workers or outsource an HRM function due to an increase demand of the companys product - Term Paper Example Should a company hire new workers or outsource an HRM function due to an increase demand of the company’s product? Outsourcing is an organizational trend practiced by most companies and its primary objective is to reduce costs and shorten workloads. It is economically beneficial to outsource an organizational function instead of hiring new employees. This is one simple way to reduce costs of acquiring additional manpower. Activities that can be outsourced include production or manufacturing, management functions like payroll system, financial processing, procurement, distribution and logistics, and other general services functions. Almost any kind of organizational activity can be outsourced but it is not advisable to outsource what is called core activity. Most firms in Europe and the United States outsource production and manufacturing activities. There are benefits for this kind of activity and arrangement on the part of the two companies but there are also drawbacks, for example, the quality of the product might be jeopardized. Some people judge service quality by comparing the service offered by an outsourcing company with the services that they used to have. There is also the disruption on the continuity of the services over a prolonged period of time, added with problems in the course of outsourcing. But through outsourcing, we can also have an improved operational process, although this is not to mean that we can outsource any activity in the organization in order to reduce costs. Abstract This essay will explain a firm’s choice of applying outsourcing to human resource. Instead of hiring new employees, a firm can hire the services of an outsourcing company to provide HRM functions. This is one of the simplest ways to acquire manpower but at the same time it answers to cost-cutting measures of a firm. With so many expenses a firm has to endure, outsourcing is seen as the answer. Moreover, through outsourcing we can institute changes and innovations and improve operational processes with the help of another organization. The question is: is it all positive? No, there are repercussions and drawbacks. Not all processes and functions can be outsourced. Managers and employees of firms that have experienced outsourcing have warned that there are functions that should be executed by managers and employees who are organic in the company. Another disadvantage is that outsourcing jeopardizes quality. Also, firms that outsource core competencies do not see the imp ortance of focusing on employees’ capability and knowledge considering that there is a relation between contented employees and contented customers. Introduction Firms find outsourcing as an easy way to produce products without much costs of production. Human resource is also another area where outsourcing can be done. Outsourcing is a trend in organizations where partnership of suppliers and businesses are involved, and networking is enhanced. There are hosts of other functions that can be done with outsourcing. But there are negative repercussions if outsourcing is not well planned and studied before it is applied. There may be economic benefits in the short term, but in the long run there can be negative effects, and some of these include cultural factors and cultural integration, continuity of skill of employees, and so on. The negative effects can also result into loss of savings or added expenditures on the part of the firm that applied outsourcing to HRM functions. An example of this negative repercussion is that there could be loss of skill on the employees, and some employees can feel insecure of their job that they opt to resign. If there are losses, then what good is outsourcing?

Risk in the business world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Risk in the business world - Essay Example There are four basic ways in which a CFO can handle risk; avoid, reduce, assume, or transfer the risk (Silverman, n.d.). A CFO’s attempts should be directed at managing risk in the very order as mentioned here. Personally, a CFO handles risks by collaborating with and influencing the CEO, and also by maintaining independence (Egon Zehnder International, 2008). The challenge for a CFO is to focus on controls, and at the same time, on business partnering. Being able to balance the two conflicting claims enables a CFO to deliver business results. Professionally, a CFO handles risk by trying to assess it in advance and informing the concerned authorities so that it can be managed in time and effectively, if encountered. The best source of risk assessment is historical records and past experiences coupled with expert opinion. In addition, various software like Primavera Risk Analysis can be used to assess and manage risks involved in a

Do Animals Feel Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Do Animals Feel - Research Paper Example The scientific research in evolutionary biology, cognitive ethology and neuroscience states that diverse animals have rich and deep emotional lives. Emotions served as the instrument to bond and attach animals with one another. Emotions, empathy and distinguishing right from wrong are the essential keys for survival on this complex environment and social interactions about lifestyle of different species (Goodal & Bekoff, 18). Humans experienced different forms of pain as well as animals. Pain is a subjective sensation that every individual verbalized and feel. According to Sneddon in 2011 people and animals almost have the same mechanisms of pain detection and have similar areas of brain involved in how the pain is processed. In addition, humans and animals are similar in terms of pain behaviors, but obviously, assessing pain in animals is more difficult to distinguish compared from human pain. Similarly, Sneddon identified the two components of pain: the physical hurt or discomfort which is caused by inflicting injury, illness or disease and the emotional hurt or suffering. Sneddon concluded that animals, just like humans, are capable of feeling physical and emotional pain (n.p.). Humans can feel emotional pain without physical injuries or disease such as after a loss of loved one, break-up of a relationship, loss of important things in their life, etc. Contrary to Sneddon’s conclusion, some scientists stated that animals are not capable of feeling emotional pain because of the reason that animals do not have neocortex or the thinking area which are found only in mammals and primates. Research of Sneddon showed that there is evidence that monkeys, dogs, cats, and birds demonstrate signs of emotional pain and behaviors associated with depression during painful experience, lethargy, anorexia, and unresponsiveness to other animals (Sneddon, n.p.). According to Bekoff in 2007, there was a doctoral research of student that required killing cats. As the autho r started the studies, the cat looks like sad and wanted to say something. After the experienced, the author decided to study different animal behavior that focus on social communication in large range of species. In adjunct with what the other scientists stated, Mark Bekoff discovered that animals feel joy, empathy, grief, embarrassment, anger, and even love (Bekoff, n.p.). In December 2005, a female humpback whale caught in crab lines, the weight of the whale which is 50 tons and 50 ft. in size which makes it difficult for the female humpback to blow above the water. A team of divers saved the female humpback whale and James Moskito, one of the rescuers described the feeling that the female humpback like to thank the rescuers for doing such good act. The whale stopped and pushed around a little bit and had some fun, the female humpback showed feelings of gratitude to the rescuers Bekoff, n.p.) Empathy is a feeling that is believed also to be felt by animals. An example of which is the livelier mouse. Every time the livelier mouse went over to get a drink and a piece of food and found out that the weaker mouse tried to bite the food, the livelier mouse moved the food gradually towards the water until the weaker mouse reached the food (Bekoff, n.p.). Animals can also show feelings of anger the same way as humans can do: they share common

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 68

Leadership - Essay Example The style of leadership chosen by an individual is reflective of their nature. Douglas McGregor pointed out that leadership is dominated by human nature, which can be explained using the X and Y theories. While theory X portrays the average person as lazy, lacking in ambition, and always waiting to be directed, theory Y perceives human beings as active, ambitious, and ready to take responsibilities (Stewart, 2010). Accordingly, although most people would want to identify with theory Y, the truth is that a majority of people are not that self-motivated and need to be prompted into action. This observation makes theory X more realistic than theory Y in the relationship between leaders and followers. Transformational leadership is a leadership model advanced by Kouze & Posner (2010), who in their first two chapters provide real life examples of managers whose personalities transformed their organizations. Essentially, Kouze & Posner (2010) perceive leadership as a relationship rather than a position by stating that leadership is not only measured by being in charge of others, but also by being credible. Transformational leadership encourages the leader to create away that will stimulate a common vision, challenge daily undertakings, motivate others to act, and even inspire them (Kouze & Posner, 2010). Considering that it took 20 years of intensive research in real organizations to come up with this model, the transformational leadership model is very important in understanding the concept of good leadership. The only problem with the transformational leadership theory is that it may give too much power to narcissistic individuals who might end up abusing such

Human Genome Project Essay Example for Free

Human Genome Project Essay One of the most challenging questions that have been left unanswered to this date is that regarding human evolution and geography. From the sociological point of view, it has long been known that specific populations can be differentiated from each other based on their religious backgrounds. On the other hand, forensic science employs language in grouping human population. In the field of human genetics, there is currently credible information that facilitates the understanding of how the entire human population evolved through time. The recent completion of the Human Genome Project resulted in the generation of the actual deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence of a human cell, with the hope that every disease could be associated to a particular gene in the sequence. Alongside this discovery, other genetic features have been uncovered in the DNA sequence, including small nucleotide polymorphisms which serve as signatures to specific biological phenomenon. In Olson’s chapter entitled â€Å"God’s people: A genetic history of the Jews,† the evolution of this population was described in terms of selection, environmental factors, adaptation and migration (Olson 107). The chapter supported this description with reports generated from haplotype reconstruction and tracing of Aaron’s Y chromosome. Through DNA sequencing analyses, it is now possible to reconstruct the origins and migrations of specific populations based on the presence or absence of genetic markers in the human genome sequence. The most interesting part of the chapter is that genetic changes in the Samaritan population can be correlated to their historical account, including the time when these individuals were under persecution by the Roman government. This historical event resulted in a significant decrease in their population size. In response to the change in population size, the Samaritans underwent what is genetically termed inbreeding, which is simply the action of consanguinity. Despite common notions that consanguinity results in serious health risks, this population survived through thousands of years. One major observation among the Samaritans is that these individuals physically appear similar and this is mainly due to inbreeding. Interestingly, the expected medical diseases that are commonly brought about by intermarriages did not develop in the next generations and this may be due to the selection against these defective genotypes. Another process that could be associated with this scenario is the bottleneck effect, which selectively retains the beneficial genes to the next generation. Today, it has been estimated that approximately 13 million Jews are living in the Middle East. The contemporary Jews are technically grouped into Ashkenazi or non-Ashkenazi, based on their ancestry through regions around Europe. These individuals are a good population to follow in terms of genetic history, since this population carries a natural history of migration and evolution through time. The non-Ashkenazi Jews are considered as the highly migratory subpopulation, resulting in a diverse culture. On the other hand, the Ashkenazi Jews generally remained in the same region, thus preserving their genetic makeup. This geographical history thus resulted in the identification of specific genetic mutations and diseases that are inherently observed among members of this population. The chapter also attempted to describe the effect of founding mutations, which are initial mutations that have occurred early in time during the migratory and settling era of the population. The subsequent generations of this population resulted in the presence of the same diseases and mutations, the most possible explanation for this is that these formerly de novo mutations have been fixed in the genome sequence of the offspring. It should be understood that genetic mutations occur in germ cells, as well as in somatic cells, and these have the propensity to be passed on to the next generation through the genetic laws of independent assortment and segregation. The analysis of sequences derived from mitochondrial DNA have also revealed that the founder mutations reported among the Jews were transmitted through a matrilineal route (Behar 2062). Using mitochondrial DNA tracking, genetic analysis can generate estimations of the time of fixation of a specific genetic mutation in this population. The continuous geographical changes of the members of this population further exert its impact on the genetic fixation and phenotypic frequencies of these mutations, resulting in the current genetic conditions of this group. The genetic pool of the Jews thus reflects a microenvironment wherein genetic changes, alongside environmental effects and migration could be correlated with each other. There is still great debate with regards to the genetic history of the Jews. As Olson has indeed mentioned in his writing, all human beings are similar in the genetics aspect and being a Jew is simply based on how an individual feels about himself. This maybe true, yet in time there will still be more information that will be gathered from genetic assays on different populations around the world. The current information that has been established is that there are three founding mutations that have been identified in the Jews and each mutation reflects the origin or migratory pattern of each subgroup. However, the exact direction or genetic drift of each migratory pattern still needs to be further investigated. There is a need for a comprehensive genotyping of more individuals of each human population in order to fully understand the historical, as well as geographical account of human evolution and speciation. Each existing population must have been derived from an original group of individuals that existed in time. 2. The article entitled, â€Å"Jewish legacy inscribed on genes† authored by Karen Kaplan describes the account of Gregory Cochran regarding the genes of Jewish individuals (Kaplan 3). One of his claims is that Ashkenazi Jews are more prone to serious medical disorders due to the common mutations that afflict this specific population. One of the highly publicized medical disorders that commonly occur among Ashkenazi Jews is Tay-Sachs disease, a neurological childhood condition that leaves an individual disabled and complications result in difficulty of these individual’s to lead normal lives. Another common genetic disorder affecting Jews is Canavan disease, which involves the deterioration of the brain tissues, resulting in both morbidity and mortality in young Ashkenazi Jewish children. Niemann-Pick disease is another serious medical condition that is often reported among this specific human population and this disease is associated with the significant accumulation of fats in the particular organs such as the brain. Unfortunately, these aforementioned medical disorders result in mortality of an Ashkenazi Jew at a very young age. Another medical disorder that occurs frequently among Ashkenazi Jews is torsion dystonia, which is a movement disorder that involves changes in the tissue consistency of the brain. The accumulation of plaques in the brain results in the involuntary jerking and twisting of parts or even the entire body of the afflicted individual. Cochran claims that these common medical disorders affect Ashkenazi Jews in particular through a specific genetic makeup that still has yet to be uncovered. It is also of interest to know that these common disorders are of neurological origin, which means that the central nervous system of an individual is affected. Thus, these disorders can either affect the brain, the spinal cord, or any of the smaller neural cells that are connected or associated with the nervous system. In order for the public to better understand his claim, Cochran even compared this association to that of sickle cell anemia, which is a severe blood disorder that is commonly observed among African Americans. This genetic blood disorder results in the difficulty to transport oxygen to the rest of the parts of the body, as the red blood cells are distorted in shape, from the normal ovoid shape to that similar to a sickle. Comprehensive scientific research has established that a specific mutation is responsible for the generation of a sickle cell-shaped red blood cell, which in turn is commonly present in individuals of African American descent. Another claim of Gregory Cochran is that despite such serious medical disorders that commonly affect Ashkenazi Jews, a positive observation is also significantly present in this human population. Cochran claimed that Ashkenazi Jews are highly intelligent, as shown by intelligence quotient (IQ) scores of children of this ethnicity. He thus proposed that the predisposition of Ashkenazi Jews to mutations in gene associated with brain conditions also results in a high level of intelligence. Kaplan’s article further supports Cochran’s claim of intelligence and gene mutations with the historical accounts of how Jews lives through the centuries. The activities mainly involved migration, trading and other forms of business, all of which were highly successful. Kaplan supported Cochran’s claim by saying that these business transactions can only survive if the individuals involved were highly intelligent and since most of the activities were led by Ashkenazi Jews, then it is also likely that the intelligence â€Å"phenomenon† may have existed early on. Unfortunately, the claims of Cochran still need to be tested on a large population of Ashkenazi Jews before this can be proven and accepted. As Kaplan accounts in her Los Angeles Times article, the report of Cochran was an outright reject in the first journal that he and his collaborator, Harpending, submitted to. However, another journal that supports theories without substantial experimental evidence, Journal of Biosocial Science, published their claim. The claim of high intelligence among Ashkenazi Jews needs to undergo comprehensive investigation first before it can be fully accepted in the field of science. Similar to the genetic establishment of the neurological diseases that commonly affect Ashkenazi Jews, this claim was further strengthened after several years of scientific research in genetic laboratories. Patients positively diagnosed with the neurological disease were checked with regards to other clinical features. In addition, their DNA was extracted and the specific genes responsible for generating the disease were sequenced. In case a DNA mutation was identified in the genes, these were compared to other patients’ DNA sequences. Any other common features among thousands of patients were correlated and compared, thus resulting in what has now been established as a predisposition of the disease in this human population. It is thus important that the same meticulous type of investigation be conducted with regards to intelligence. However, the search for the answer to this claim may be more difficult because intelligence has been established to be influence by several factors. Scientists and psychologists have earlier established that the multi-factorial origin of intelligence makes any effort in tracing the source of intelligence to be ultimately difficult. Intelligence can not simply be generated through the genes because environmental factors can also affect an individual’s condition, including his mental state. There are a number of twin studies that have been conducted for several decades that employ the procedure of separating each of the twins are bringing each individual up in a different environment. Since the genetic makeup of twins is entirely the same, then any claims on intelligence genes can be validated in such experimental conditions. Unfortunately, twin studies have proven that a child who was brought up in an environment filled with violence and anger tend to be poorly developed in intelligence. On the other hand, the twin sibling who was raised in an environment that was filled with love and support grew up into a very intelligent and mature individual. It is thus difficult to prove Cochran’s claim that Ashkenazi Jews are far more intelligent than other human populations, because there are so many factors to consider before one can claim that a specific entity influences that state of thinking. Another issue that would emanate from such claim is that other cultures and ethnicities would perceive such proposal as a form of discrimination or indifference to other human populations. Claiming or even proving that a certain human population is highly intelligent does not help in the global cooperation between countries. In addition, the establishment of this claim will not save lives, just like the other efforts that employ genetic technologies in screening for specific mutations that would tie a particular phenotype to a particular genetic sequence. Proving the high levels of intelligence among Ashkenazi Jews will only spark anger and outrage from other cultures. It is thus good that Cochran feels that there is no need to prove his claim through the use of experimental evidence. It would also be safe and for the best of the rest of the world to leave Cochran along with his claim and let other people speculate on his unsupported claim. The application of genetic analysis on human population has been regarded as a novel and revolutionary addition to the methods in studying human evolution and speciation. The information that can be generated by this technology can be very sensitive and effective, yet there is still a need to employ human intervention and compassion with regards to which specific questions need to be addressed. Genetic analysis in connection to medical disorders can be very helpful in diagnostics and treatment, as well as for saving lives, but genetic screening other social factors such as intelligence will only spark bias among individuals around the world. Works Cited Behar, D. M., Metspalu, E. , Kivisild, T. , Rosset, S. , Tzur, S. , Hadid, Y. , Yudkovsky, G. , Rosengarten, D. , Pereira, L. , Amorim, A. , Kutuev, I. , Gurwitz, D. , Bonne-Tamir, B. , Villems, R. and Skorecki, K. â€Å"Counting the Founders: The Matrilineal Genetic Ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora. † PLoS ONE 3 (2008): 2062-2087. Kaplan, K. â€Å"Jewish Legacy Inscribed on Genes? † Los Angeles Times 18 April 2009. Olson, S. Mapping Human History: Genes, Race, and Our Common Origins. San Francisco: Harcourt Publishers, 2003.

Controversies And Arguments Of Euthanasia Philosophy Essay

Controversies And Arguments Of Euthanasia Philosophy Essay Nonetheless, the vast majority of Australians from doctors to philosophers support voluntary euthanasia. For example, Australian philosopher, Peter Singer, actively supports euthanasia in his book of Taking Life: Human while pro-euthanasia Doctor Phillip Nitschke assisted Bob Dent to die by a lethal injection. This essay explains what euthanasia is and discusses whether voluntary euthanasia should be a right of the terminally ill. Euthanasia means a gentle and easy death, (Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable 2006) and it is usually used to refer to the induced death of those who are incurably ill and in great pain or distress in order to spare them further suffering or distress. It is often referred to as mercy killing. Singer (1993, p.175) classified euthanasia as voluntary, involuntary or non-voluntary. Involuntary euthanasia means without the consent of the person who dies even if they express a wish to live and is effectively murder even if the motives are to benefit the deceased. Non-voluntary euthanasia occurs where a persons mental age is or has always been that of an infant so that they have no capacity of express any preference to live or die such as when someone is severely disabled infant since birth or those who suffer severe brain damages after accidents and become permanently mentally disabled. Sometimes people in this situation are allowed to die by withdrawing medical services such as intensive care treatment. Voluntary euthanasia which is where a person consciously chooses an early death (Singer 1993, pp.175-177). This essay will only focus on ethical arguments as to whether voluntary euthanasia and non-voluntary should be legalised. One argument for euthanasia is the utilitarian principle which says that the lives of some people can be sacrificed for the benefit of others deemed more worthy of care. It has been said that When applying the utilitarian theory to the ethics of euthanasia, can it not be said that Self Deliverance for a competent terminally ill patient is an unselfish act (Maj 2002)? Utilitarianism is commonly expressed as the greatest good for the greatest number (Rohnann 1999, cited in Rich Butts 2005, p. 9). A moral theory is utilitarian if and only if it assesses rules in terms of nothing but their utility. Jeremy Bentham, invoked what he described as a fundamental axiom it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong (Bentham 1823). Utilitarians theorise that there is the same ground for voluntary euthanasia as for non-voluntary euthanasia as death is the benefit for the person killed but is it possible to justify ending the life of a human being who lacks the capacity to consent in the same way as where people are capable of consenting, and do in fact consent (Singer 1993). Utilitarians consider that death will bring peace to the patient, family and friends and can be justified purely on the utilitarian grounds that a terminally ill person has lost the ability to pursue the intellectual or physical life they once had or has lost dignity by becoming dependent on others for fundamental needs such as going to the toilet. (Maj 2002). Something I can identify with having seen my once proud grandfather after a stroke having to wear a nappy. In my opinion for many once dignity and self sufficiency are lost death is a release. The strongest argument for active voluntary euthanasia is based on respect for individual autonomy or self governance. Autonomy is the belief that every person has the right to shape their own life through their choices which includes the right to choose the time and circumstances of their death and is expressed concerning basic human dignity (Grey 1999, p.21). The principle of autonomy is an expression Kants ideal that having ones own choice whether that choice is good or bad is of paramount importance for life. Kant believes that suggesting someone knows better than yourself in such a personal thing as death is a dubious paternalistic presumption (Grey 1999,p.21) in many ways similar to this current governments belief that they know best what you should see or read on the internet. J.S. Mill in his expression of the harm principle state: the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against their will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. (Grey 1999, p.21)   Autonomy acknowledges an individuals sovereignty over all acts which only affect self on the basis that it is insupportable to have someone else choose the timing of ones own death. (Grey 1999,p.21).  This is difficult to argue against since only in the most horrendous crimes do States now have the power to deprive a criminal of life yet involuntary euthanasia suggests they have the right to kill non criminals. However if a person chooses to die we should respect that wish. Peter Singer believes voluntary euthanasia is a matter of respecting a persons preference and overall well-being, welfare or interests in their particular circumstances such as when they are suffering from cancer. In Holland, a nationwide government survey found that Many patients want an assurance that their doctor will assist them to die should suffering become unbearable (Singer 1993). One argument for euthanasia which involves utilitarian theory is the need to reduce societys costs in an ever more crowded world by reducing the number of people needing intensive care. There are many arguments against euthanasia. The possibility of abuse is one of the most common arguments against euthanasia. Abuse may mean patents are pressured by families or medical facilities to agree to ending their own life. Family may want to see the suffering end but they may also want to see the inheritance now. Doctors may wish to free up scare medical resources for those they believe they can save and in fact hospitals make these sort of choices by withdrawing medical support for the terminally ill. Opponents argue that we can never be sure that a request to be killed is the result of a free and rational decision, particularly as they are likely to be suffering pain, very probably drugged and confused (Singer 1993). Depression is also an issue because it is a form of pressure from within. A depressed person is more likely to choose to take their own life whether or not they are terminally ill. Another argument against euthanasia is the level of protection required to ensure it is not misused will actually make it more painful. No one who is ill is going to want to face a barrage of questions and forms to choose death yet leaving the documentation to Doctors or Family or some other party leaves open the door to abuse. There is also the opening the floodgatesor Slippery Slope argument that if society accepts euthanasia as a universal right of competent terminally ill patients to decide their fate (Maj 2002) then how long will it be before society decides what should be done with the chronically ill, handicapped or simply old who no longer contribute but are a burden on society. The Catholic Church objects to euthanasia on religious grounds saying that the church opposes euthanasia as that life which God has bestowed on each one of us, can never be sacrificed for the sake of the good of self-determination as it contravenes the Thou shalt not kill commandment (Demarco 2003, p. 154).However, the church distinguishes euthanasia from decisions to forego aggressive medical treatment which are medical procedures which no longer correspond to the real situation of the patient, either because they are by now disproportionate to any expected results or because they impose an excessive burden on the patient and his family (Demarco 2003, p. 155). In conclusion voluntary euthanasia may be seen as a way of giving respect to those who are in distress and paid and wish to leave life, family and friends with dignity. While there are arguments against voluntary euthanasia they are, apart from religious moral concerns, easily overcome by putting in place appropriate safeguards such as a number of independent witnesses who must ensure that the person who is contemplating euthanasia is fully aware of what they are doing and that there is no going back. Non voluntary euthanasia is more difficult as no consent is possible but can be justified on the grounds that the benefit to society is larger than the detriment to the individual particularly if the individual is and has been so damaged that they cannot appreciate the life they live. Singer says in his book of Rethinking Life and Death We should say theyre alive but nonetheless their life is not viable. They are alive but that life is not worth living (Singer 1999)

Issues with Police Human Rights

Issues with Police Human Rights Chapter one: Introduction and overview 1.1: General Introduction: Police rights and police history has been a subject of limited interest to the scholars of criminal justice, labor history and industrial relations across the world (Baker, 1999). When human rights of police are prescribed and debated, the issue creates much controversy and draws strong reaction from the academician, human rights experts, police controlling authority and public (Marks Fleming, 2006). Police are usually perceived as state agents that serve the interest of the government. They think that police are bound to respect human rights of the population they serve while performing duties and functions specifically during using force, arresting and detention. The members of the police force often claim that they have equal rights and privilege similar to other citizens in addition to their duties and responsibilities. Apparently, there is a clear split between two poles on the one hand each citizen or criminal, whose rights must be respected and protected, and on the other ha nd the police officers who have no rights, responsibility only. This partisan may prompt another debate on whether the police officers have less or more rights and obligations then the rest of the citizens. But it is totally incorrect that police officers have obligations only but no rights. Police are also citizen entitled to the same rights, privileges and benefits of citizenship (Bruce Neild 2005). They are also protected by the same human rights standards (Feiner, 2009). If police are expected to defend democracy and human rights, they should not be denied basic democratic and basic rights (Marks Fleming, 2006). The rights of police officers are constrained by regional, national, and international regulatory frameworks (Marks and Fleming 2006). Sometimes their rights are reduced to such a level that they do not have many basic rights as a citizen in many countries. In Bangladesh, the rights of police officers also seem to be ill-understood and neglected on both intellectual and state level. The prolonged struggle of the police officers for the realization of the rights is not well-documented either in the academic or popular literature. The existing literature, human rights publications and the media while discussing about democratic policing often refer to the police accountability, civilianization of policing, policing outcomes and performance measurement, and community participation and partnerships but they hardly mention about the human rights of the police officers like other citizens of the country. As a result, the rights of police officers are subject to a wide range of violations in and outside the organization. The widespread violation of police rights varies from economic and social rights to civil and political rights, from individual level to collective level. This study attempted to investigate the economic and social rights viol ations of the police officers by narrowing down its focus only on the working environment they operate. The studies approached to examine the police work phenomena from human rights perspective where most of the studies described it from physiological, psychological and organizational perspective. 1.2: Objectives: The primary objective of this research is to depict a real picture of human rights situation of the crime fighters within the organization, to investigate its possible causes and impact on the police individual and society as a whole. The secondary aims include directives for future research into police rights discourse for academician, and to recommend ways to improve human rights situation of the police officers which might help strengthen ongoing Police Reform Program in Bangladesh. I firmly believe that the outcome of the research can contribute to the policy makers of the government and non-government organizations in resolving the human rights abuses in and outside the police organization. 1.3: Research Question: The following questions have been formulated in order to meet the research objectives: which of the economic and social rights of the police members in Bangladesh come under violation? What are the factors leading to the violation of the economic and social rights of police members? What are the possible consequences ofthe violation on victims lifeandon society at large? 1.4 Background to the study 1.4.1 Personal Motivation: Having both the human rights and police background, I perceived I would be the right person that would be able to precisely elucidate the complexity and peculiarity of human rights situation of the police workplace in Bangladesh. Police in Bangladesh are frequently accused of human rights abuse by the national and international human rights organizations (see Amnesty International, 2000, Odhikar, 2009). A number of studies can be done to answer ‘why do police violate human rights. But being an insider, I understand well where the tension between policing and human rights and between the ethics and the practice of policing lies. Nearly five years field level experience with the organization as a mid-level police supervisor has given me an impression that the overall environment where they operate is not congenial to human rights friendly atmosphere both for the general people and the police members. A big share or contribution to the adverse environment is made by the stressful job itself and different kinds of organizational factors. The factors outside the organizations also have a significant role in creating human rights unfriendly environment. Some of the abuses by the police are taking place for personal gain of the individual police members whereas some are the result of imposed burden which they are unable to resist. Resource constraints and staff shortage that put physical, psychological and organization pressure often compel them to exhibit deviance behavior. In addition, deprivation of several basic rights as a consequence of poor working conditions and low wages creates deep frustration and depression among them resulting in strong job dissatisfaction. When all these internal factors combine with other factors, it is very likely that the police officers show up with extreme police deviance behavior having serious impacts on human rights. Unfortunately, no shed of light fell on the fragile and poor working conditions of the police in Bangladesh so far. It is also harder for them to talk to the media, and claim their rights in the same way as the workers in the private sector do through demonstration or strike. As a result, their inhumane sufferings remain beyond the reach of media, human rights activists and general public. In 2005, government introduced police reform programmes assisted by UNDP, DFID and other international donors. The local newspaper being influenced by the programme, sometimes published reports on the organizational problem of the police discretely. However, I did not find any systematic academic researches that have been carried out on the economic and social rights of the Bangladesh police in relation to their workplace. 1.4.2 Relevance in history: The police struggle for their rights across the globe has been long and old. While police officers in Bangladesh are barred from being qualified as worker in the labor law, the police in Australia, Europe, North America and New Zealand are now fully entitled to have equal citizenship rights including economic and social rights (Finnane, 2001). In Europe, British Police stood up to establish their industrial and social rights through police strikes in London and Liverpool in 1918-9 and succeeded to ensure their industrial and social rights many decades ago. Following the British example, the adventurous police unions activities in New Zealand forced the government to mandate police unions and associations during 1919 ( Finnane 2001). There are also a number of instances of force revolt in the history of Bangladesh such as BDR mutiny in 2009. In 1993, subordinate police officers of Dhaka Metropoliton police at the Rajarbagh Police Lines in Dhaka agitated demanding better working condit ions and increased pay (ICG, 2009). Fortunately, it ended up without any bloodshed and increased salaries but many officers got sacked. In 2009, the paramilitary force Bangladesh Rifles which is also regulated by the same ministry, led a murderous uprising in response to poor working conditionss and low pay leaving more than 75 people dead (ICG 2009). 1.4.3 Rationale of the study: Realization of all the human rights including civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights is nearly impossible without social order (Crashaw 2002). Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights enables everyone to be entitled to the right to social and international order.   It is the police force whose fundamental function is to maintain social order by keeping criminality and social tension or civil unrest at tolerable level through effective policing. The dream of complete policing defined as effective, lawful and humane-would remain a dream only until and unless the police agencies are well managed and well resourced by the respective governments. Only through the promulgation of police code of conduct and ethics, human rights training, monitoring and oversight mechanism will help a little to improve the overall human rights records and performance of the police unless their basic rights remain unheard, unmet and fulfilled. Human rights of more than 150 mil lion people of Bangladesh will also be at risk if police with its limited resources and poor working conditionss fails to maintain social order and stability. 1.4.4 Overview of the study: The real working experiences of one and a half dozen of police officers are explored and analyzed using data obtained from their narratives conversational interviews. With direct reference to the existing available literature, it is attempted to demonstrate that the police members in Bangladesh have also been subject to the violation of economic and social rights in the workplace. But the human rights advocates ignore the close connection between internal and external violation i.e. human rights violation of the police and human rights abuse by the police. As a result, it has been a common practice among the human rights organizations, media and academician to criticize the police-subculture, corruption and lack of human rights training responsible for human rights violation by them. The sufferings and miseries of the police hardly managed to draw attention of the human rights organizations or the academician. The human rights organizations usually end up their duties by suggesting h uman rights training and monitoring mechanism to stop human rights abuses and corruption of the police. Despite the necessity of the human rights training and oversight mechanism, all these efforts may be proved meaningless for them if they do not see the application of those human rights in their practical lives. 1.4.5 Overview of the thesis: The thesis will be presented in six chapters: Chapter One: This chapter presents the background describing my personal view and motivations including primary and secondary objectives. Chapter Two: This chapter briefly describes the study population and the subject area including statistical numbers, facts and figures. Chapter Three: This chapter gives a theoretical and conceptual background of the topic based on existing literature and other secondary source of data. Chapter four: This chapter of methodology and method gives a full description of participant selection, interview process, ethical issues and the challenges to recruitment.   Chapter Five: This chapter explains how data is examined and analyzed to develop the themes expressed by the participants. Chapter Six: In this chapter, Findings are discussed and reviewed with the objectives. This chapter also discusses the implications and limitations of the thesis. 1.4.6 Conclusion: This chapter gives an overall idea on the topic and describes the genesis of the research topic. Personal motivation for undertaking this project and the relevance of the research has also been discussed. It also gives an overview of the research and the chapter outlines. The following chapter discusses about the population under study and the subject area highlighting various aspects of the organization. Chapter two: Demographical and organizational context of the research 2.1 The study population: Bangladesh Police is a national organization with headquarter based in Dhaka. It is answerable to the acting government which controls and oversees the organization under the administrative control by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA). The organization consists of a number of branches and units that mainly include Range and Metropolitan police, traffic, an armed police battalion(APBN), a criminal investigation department (CID), special branch (SB), Rapid Action Battalion (RAB), and training institutions (Shahjahan, 2000). The ‘Range and ‘Metropolitan police are again subdivided into districts, circles, police stations and outposts (Shahjahan 2000, ICG 2009). Bangladesh has a total of 123197 police officers for its over 153 million population (ICG 2009). It means there is only one police officer for more than 1,200 people in Bangladesh. This ratio is probably the lowest ratio among the other South Asian nations, and nearly three times lower than the recommended ratio of 1:450 by the UN (ICG 2009, Appendix C). In some areas for example in Sylhet and Coxbazar district of the country the ratios are 1:3500 and 1: 2000 respectively (ICG 2009). The total force with eighteen ranks can be categorized into gazetted (ASP to IGP) and non-gazetted ranks (Constable to Inspector) which is roughly analogous to commissioned and non-commissioned officers in the military. Subordinate officers with numbers 121,659 have overwhelming majority over the gazetted officers numbering 1538 only (ICG 2009: 8). The Inspector General of Police (IGP), Deputy Inspector General (DIG), Assistant Inspector Generals(AIG) or superintendents of police (SP) and Assistant Superintendent of Police constitute the four gazetted ranks while subordinate ranks include the positions of inspector, sub-inspector, sergeant, and assistant sub-inspector, head constables both armed and unarmed, naiks and constables (ICG 2009:30). Out of 121659 subordinate officers, constables are bulk forces having a figure roughly 88,000. The total number of women police is also very low standing at 1,937 i.e. roughly 1.5 percent in compared to that of other low income countries having 8.5 per cent policewomen (ICG 2009: 9). 2.2 The subject area: In recent years, both the print and electronic media of the country also revealed many facts and figures about the working conditions of the police in Bangladesh. Karzon (2006) in a newspaper article stated that the police in Bangladesh are confronted with many kinds of problem that ranges from weak infrastructure to poor working conditions.Although Bangladesh got independence in 1947 from British rule and got separated from Pakistan in 1971, it has failed to rebuild its police force. The country still retains a colonial system of policing with little change that it inherited from its colonial master ( Karzon, 2006; ). The subsequent governments kept century-old police laws such as the Police Act of 1861; the Evidence Act of 1872; the Criminal Procedure Code of Police of 1898; and Police Regulation of Bengal of 1943 that were primarily devised to deter anti-British movements (Shahjahan, 2000; Karzon, 2006). Many provisions of the outdated laws have flaws and gaps that are inconsisten t with the human rights spirits, rule of law and modern democracy (Karzon, 2006; ICG 2009). Police in Bangladesh particularly the subordinate ranks lead a very difficult and unrewarding life because of deplorable working conditions, abysmal salaries, excessive workload, corrupt and politicized transfer and promotion system (ICG 2009; ). In terms of salary, the top-most police boss draws a monthly salary of Taka 23 000 ($333) while the lowest salary of the organization amounts to Taka 3000 which is just $1.30 a day which is approximately equal to the international poverty line of $1.25 per day (see appendix B). The working hours of the police members are almost double than that of other government employees (Karzon, 2006). It is also reported that they do not have adequate logistic support such as vehicles, prison vans, radios, fuel for vehicles, bicycles, modern weapons and even stationery to write reports (Karzon, 2006; ICG, 2009). Vacation, public holidays, annual and other leaves are rare and unheard and all these problems remain a great source of frustration and low mor ale for the officers (ICG, 2009). The annual budget of $420-million in addition to the resource constrains and staff shortage is simply unable to meet the organizational needs. In a report, another national daily revealed that 99 percent of the policemen blame the poor working conditions and lack of logistic support as major factors that prevent them from performing their duties (The Daily Star, 2007).   It commented that the police members in Bangladesh will continue to lead in human life until and unless salaries are increased, daily work hours are reduced to an acceptable level and all operational costs are met by the government. Referring to Paolo del Mistro, a Police specialist of the UNDP, a newspaper stated, â€Å"the police in Bangladesh are leading unsatisfactory life and they do not enjoy their policing job as it often destroys their self-respect. Moreover, they are not well-equipped† (cited in Azad, 2007).  Ã‚   He blamed the system not the police department fo r the grim working and living conditions. A civil society member in a seminar also stressed the need for increasing the salary and allowances for the police so that the police members change their mindset (The Independent, Bangladesh, 2008). In a round table discussion, another civil society member of the country went further and suggested that police officers with low salaries should be allowed to do other jobs so that they can compensate for the poor pay. He asserted, â€Å"They can not do that as long as their time of duty is not definite† (The Daily Star, August 12, 2007). The police in Bangladesh have a bad reputation for their alleged involvement with corruption and brutality (ICG, 2009). According to Transparency International Bangladesh report, 96.6 per cent of Bangladeshs households experienced some form of corruption that came across with law enforcement agencies (TIB, 2007). Police organization in Bangladesh had been identified as the most corrupt agency among all the government agency (karzon, 2006). A leading national daily of the country in its editorial wrote that the poor working conditions obstruct police to become servant of the people (The daily prothom alo, 2007). It recommended increasing the number of police personnel, vehicle and remuneration of police in addition to improving the poor working condition. Chapter three: Literature Review 3.1 Introduction: This chapter reviews the existing literature and other secondary sources of data that are related to the economic and social rights of police. The complex nature of the issue has been organized into various sections giving different aspects including the causes and consequences if remain unrealized. 3.2 Economic and social rights of police: The concept of human rights of police does not imply a new thought or idea. Rather these are the same rights and benefits to which every citizen is entitled. Referring to police rights, Bruce and Neild asserted: the facts that police are citizens, means they are entitled to the rights, privileges and benefits of citizenship (2005:41). Therefore human rights of police include all the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights (Feiner, 2009; Aitchison, 2004). The rights of police officers are also protected by the same human rights standards enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as well as in the various regional and international human rights charters such as International Covenant on Economic, Social Cultural rights, and European Convention on Human Rights (United Nations 1948; United Nations 1976; ECHR 1950). The economic and social rights of police are also clearly stated and standardized in the European Social Charter 1961 and the European Code of Pol ice Ethics 2001 (ESC 1961; ECPE 2001). Both the charter provides a set of   standards for police officers including reasonable working hours, rest periods and paid holidays, remuneration enabling them to have a decent standard of living, increased overtime payment, health and safety regulations in the workplace and a system of social security considering their special nature and character of work. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights and article 6 of the European Social Charter 1961 recognize the right of the police members to form and join trade unions.   International Labour Organization as a specialized international agency of the United Nations set some international labor standards and fundamental rights at work in its various conventions (ILO 1998). It sets standards determining hours of work, shift work, holidays, vacations, wages, social security and policy, accommodation, trade union, collective bargaining, rest and leisure for the workers to promote strong social policies, justice and democratic institutions. The benefits of the work standards set by ILO are equally applicable to the members of police in their work place. But it is important to make clear that the police officers can claim the rights against the state not other citizens. The failure of the state to protect the rights does not give legitimacy to police to resort to violations of human rights of general people or citizens. Police like other employees of the state are the public servants that serve state interest. As an employee or worker, the human rights of a police officer mainly revolve around the economic and social rights that mainly fall into the following categories: labour rights and the right to adequate standard of living, right to food, right to health, right to housing and right to education (Nel Bezuidenbout, 1997:97). The bulk labour rights include the right to trade union, right to organized and collective bargaining, right to rest and leisure, right to no forced labour, right to work and equal pay for equal work. Bruce and Neild also argued that central to recognizing police as citizens revolve around their right to decent conditions of service, the right to form employee representative organizations, and the right to engage in collective bargaining (2005:43). 3.2.1 Democratic policing versus economic and social rights of police: There is a close link â€Å"between organizational police democracy and societal democracy† where citizens are able to participate in decision-making processes and where basic human rights are protected (Marks Fleming, 2006:179). It means police are likely to respond more democratically and humanly if they also experience the benefits of democratic labor and social rights in their organizational set up (Berkley 1969, 46-51). Hence the right of police officers to engage in direct and indirect forms of democratic participation is crucial to rights based awareness. Police rights movement through democratic police union is also consistent with the advancement of democracy and good governance (Finnane, 2002; Prasad Snel, 2004). Police rights movement is now viewed as a countervailing force and broadcasting agendas for social change directed to establish racial justice, gender equality, and urban change (Berkley, 1969; Johnston, 2000; Robinson, 2000; Sklansky, 2005b; OMalley Hutc hinson, 2005). Police union can be seen as a bulk force for them because through the exercise of this right they might get the recognition of other economic and social rights in the workplace. In addition, police democracy brings not only the democratic benefit for them, rather through democratic police rights movement through police union can serve as a necessary internal check against bureaucratic usurpation within the organization (Gammage Stanley, 1972; Fleming Lewis, 2002:92). Despite all the benefits and importance of police trade union as core labor rights of ILO, it creates more controversy and brings criticism from academics, police managers and public than any other labour union. Police organization that allows police union is branded as ‘obdurate organization by the police scholars as the union engages only on their own vested interests such as workplace improvement and status enhancement rather than social justice features (Fogelson, 1977; OMalley, 2005b; Reiner, 1978). The critics argued that this narrowness or ‘bureaucratic conservatism of police union may thwart democratic aspirations within trade union structures (Hyman, 2000; Prasad et al 2004; Burgmann Burgmann, 1998:63). 3.2.2 Positive development towards police rights: A significant change is occurring in the police organizations across the world through the ‘privatization, civilianization, and responsibilization of policing (Marks Fleming, 2006: 193). International Labour Organization recognizes all the employment rights of the police officers except few restrictions for the emergency services (ILO 2004). But in a recent move, the ILO develops codes of practice to promote social dialogue within the public service including emergency service too. In a joint meeting on public emergency service (such as police) in 2003, The ILO adopted a document Guidelines on Social Dialogue for Public Emergency Services in a Changing Environment to promote fundamental labor rights such as the right to form and join trade union,   and collective bargaining. Thus these guidelines of ILO give an indication to its member states to allow the police to unionize and to bargain (ILO 2003a). The international network of police unions has also been attempted to pers uade the ILO to review its conventions (Mark Fleming, 2006).   They quoted Shizue Tomoda, an ILO technical specialist, as saying, â€Å"As long as a large number of member states feel that it is proper for police labor rights to be regulated by national laws, the ILO Secretariat can do little to change the status quo.†(p.189). In parallel with ILO prescription, many nations have promulgated special legislations that enable police officers to be entitled to all the citizenship rights including police union for instance, Police Officers Bill of Rights of USA; the European Social Charter and European Code of Police Ethics in Europe. The modern policing are now centered on the principle of more democracy, more accountability, more equitability, and more professionalism. Police organization within public sector is now defined as growing labor-intensive industry that enables police to be qualified as ‘worker having all the labour rights (Mark Fleming, 2006). Hence, being a member of a labor-intensive industry, they are also equally concerned about the working conditionss and wages (Wellington Winter, 1969; Reiner, 1978).The current global socio-economic climate leads police unions and public sector unions to work more closely with the labour movement in terms of their rights to collective bargaining (Reiner, 1978). EUROCOP, an association of twenty-seven member police organizations across Europe, is also promoting fairness and equal opportunities in the police service of its member organizations (Marks Fleming 2006).   Berkley (1969:46-51) also mentioned about the highly developed police unions across th e Europe such as in Germany, France, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Griffin (2001), Chief executive officer of the Canadian Professional Police Association noted that the police representatives in Canada are now a part of broad labor union body (Fleming Lewis, 2002). In the United States, Police unions go beyond the narrow interest of the police members promoting the public interests agenda consistent with community preferences in partnership with other police union partner (Magenau Hunt, 1996).   The police federation of Australia is also affiliated and aligned with the national trade union federation (Marks Fleming, 2006). Some unions of Australia (for example, the Northern Territory Police Association NTPA) are now playing a very significant and central role to solve the resource problem of the aboriginal territory. In South Africa, the Police and Prisons Civil Rights Union (POPCRU) established in 1989 is also affiliated to the progressive trade union federation committed t o democratic governance. They defend the socio-economic interests of the communities which is now well-recognized by the international human rights organizations (Marks Fleming, 2004). Police in Lesotho, Zambia, and Botswana who were denied the police rights, called upon the South African police union, POPCRU, to assist them in convincing police authorities and managers about the benefits of police unionization (Hopkins, 2004). 3.3 Theoretical framework: 3.3.1 Occupational police stress: A number of books, reviews of literature and public seminars on the study of the stressful nature of work indicate the growing interest in the field over the past 45 years across the world including America, Britain, Australia and New Zealand (Hurrell, Nelson, Simmons , Buunk de Wolff, 1992; Fried, 1993; Huddleston, 2002). One of the main reasons behind the interest is work-related stress causes huge human and monetary cost (Schuler Van Sell, 1981; Cooper Marshall, 1976; Levi, 1981; Moss, 1981 cited in Parker DeCotiis, 1983). The recent years have also witnessed ‘a sizeable body of literature that examines police stress from a variety of perspective (Webb Smith, 1980:251). This study will look into the police stress from human rights approach taking its physiological, psychological and organizational consequences into account. Even though a certain levels of stress are found in almost all occupations, police work has long been termed as a high stress, high strain and â₠¬Ëœcritical profession (Anshel, 2000, Brown Campbell, 1994; Horn, 1991; Kroes, 1976; Kroes Hurrell, 1975; Raiser, 1974; Reilly DiAngelo, 1990; Violanti Marshall, 1983, Paton 1996a). They are usually the first to reach and the last to leave the scenes of murder, suicides or accidents. One police psychologist stated: â€Å"It is an accepted fact that a police officer is under stress and pressure unequaled by any other profession† (cited in Webb Smith 1980:255). They are frequently confronted with very sad and violent categories of incidents (Carlier, 1999, Carlier Gersons, 1992) and ‘hidden victims of work-related psychological trauma (Paton, 1989, 1994b). Apart from the aforementioned intrinsic job stress, the police stressors may range from critical staff shortage to interaction in and outside the organization. Police stressors within the organization may be characterized as excessive workload, staff shortage, work interfering with family, poor or inadequate equipment or resources, seeing criminals go free and inadequate pay, uncivil interaction with co-workers and administrative hassles (Collins Gibbs, 2003; Davey, Obst, Sheehan, 2001; Morash, Haarr, Kwak, 2006; Pasillas, Follette, Perumean-Chaney, 2006, Huddleston 2002). Rigid organizational structure, shift work, excessive overtime, lack of opportunities for the advancement, workplace discrimination or harassment, administrative pressure to solve the problem, and conflicts over role and responsibility, job transfer, daily hassles, work-related disasters   can also cause serious police stress (Collins Gibbs, 2003; Brown Campbell 1994; Sewell 1993; Pratt Barling, 1988). A p olice officer without the support of his or her family or friend and personal skills is more vulnerable to police stressors (Dewe Guest, 1990; Latach Havlovic, 1992; Tho Issues with Police Human Rights Issues with Police Human Rights Chapter one: Introduction and overview 1.1: General Introduction: Police rights and police history has been a subject of limited interest to the scholars of criminal justice, labor history and industrial relations across the world (Baker, 1999). When human rights of police are prescribed and debated, the issue creates much controversy and draws strong reaction from the academician, human rights experts, police controlling authority and public (Marks Fleming, 2006). Police are usually perceived as state agents that serve the interest of the government. They think that police are bound to respect human rights of the population they serve while performing duties and functions specifically during using force, arresting and detention. The members of the police force often claim that they have equal rights and privilege similar to other citizens in addition to their duties and responsibilities. Apparently, there is a clear split between two poles on the one hand each citizen or criminal, whose rights must be respected and protected, and on the other ha nd the police officers who have no rights, responsibility only. This partisan may prompt another debate on whether the police officers have less or more rights and obligations then the rest of the citizens. But it is totally incorrect that police officers have obligations only but no rights. Police are also citizen entitled to the same rights, privileges and benefits of citizenship (Bruce Neild 2005). They are also protected by the same human rights standards (Feiner, 2009). If police are expected to defend democracy and human rights, they should not be denied basic democratic and basic rights (Marks Fleming, 2006). The rights of police officers are constrained by regional, national, and international regulatory frameworks (Marks and Fleming 2006). Sometimes their rights are reduced to such a level that they do not have many basic rights as a citizen in many countries. In Bangladesh, the rights of police officers also seem to be ill-understood and neglected on both intellectual and state level. The prolonged struggle of the police officers for the realization of the rights is not well-documented either in the academic or popular literature. The existing literature, human rights publications and the media while discussing about democratic policing often refer to the police accountability, civilianization of policing, policing outcomes and performance measurement, and community participation and partnerships but they hardly mention about the human rights of the police officers like other citizens of the country. As a result, the rights of police officers are subject to a wide range of violations in and outside the organization. The widespread violation of police rights varies from economic and social rights to civil and political rights, from individual level to collective level. This study attempted to investigate the economic and social rights viol ations of the police officers by narrowing down its focus only on the working environment they operate. The studies approached to examine the police work phenomena from human rights perspective where most of the studies described it from physiological, psychological and organizational perspective. 1.2: Objectives: The primary objective of this research is to depict a real picture of human rights situation of the crime fighters within the organization, to investigate its possible causes and impact on the police individual and society as a whole. The secondary aims include directives for future research into police rights discourse for academician, and to recommend ways to improve human rights situation of the police officers which might help strengthen ongoing Police Reform Program in Bangladesh. I firmly believe that the outcome of the research can contribute to the policy makers of the government and non-government organizations in resolving the human rights abuses in and outside the police organization. 1.3: Research Question: The following questions have been formulated in order to meet the research objectives: which of the economic and social rights of the police members in Bangladesh come under violation? What are the factors leading to the violation of the economic and social rights of police members? What are the possible consequences ofthe violation on victims lifeandon society at large? 1.4 Background to the study 1.4.1 Personal Motivation: Having both the human rights and police background, I perceived I would be the right person that would be able to precisely elucidate the complexity and peculiarity of human rights situation of the police workplace in Bangladesh. Police in Bangladesh are frequently accused of human rights abuse by the national and international human rights organizations (see Amnesty International, 2000, Odhikar, 2009). A number of studies can be done to answer ‘why do police violate human rights. But being an insider, I understand well where the tension between policing and human rights and between the ethics and the practice of policing lies. Nearly five years field level experience with the organization as a mid-level police supervisor has given me an impression that the overall environment where they operate is not congenial to human rights friendly atmosphere both for the general people and the police members. A big share or contribution to the adverse environment is made by the stressful job itself and different kinds of organizational factors. The factors outside the organizations also have a significant role in creating human rights unfriendly environment. Some of the abuses by the police are taking place for personal gain of the individual police members whereas some are the result of imposed burden which they are unable to resist. Resource constraints and staff shortage that put physical, psychological and organization pressure often compel them to exhibit deviance behavior. In addition, deprivation of several basic rights as a consequence of poor working conditions and low wages creates deep frustration and depression among them resulting in strong job dissatisfaction. When all these internal factors combine with other factors, it is very likely that the police officers show up with extreme police deviance behavior having serious impacts on human rights. Unfortunately, no shed of light fell on the fragile and poor working conditions of the police in Bangladesh so far. It is also harder for them to talk to the media, and claim their rights in the same way as the workers in the private sector do through demonstration or strike. As a result, their inhumane sufferings remain beyond the reach of media, human rights activists and general public. In 2005, government introduced police reform programmes assisted by UNDP, DFID and other international donors. The local newspaper being influenced by the programme, sometimes published reports on the organizational problem of the police discretely. However, I did not find any systematic academic researches that have been carried out on the economic and social rights of the Bangladesh police in relation to their workplace. 1.4.2 Relevance in history: The police struggle for their rights across the globe has been long and old. While police officers in Bangladesh are barred from being qualified as worker in the labor law, the police in Australia, Europe, North America and New Zealand are now fully entitled to have equal citizenship rights including economic and social rights (Finnane, 2001). In Europe, British Police stood up to establish their industrial and social rights through police strikes in London and Liverpool in 1918-9 and succeeded to ensure their industrial and social rights many decades ago. Following the British example, the adventurous police unions activities in New Zealand forced the government to mandate police unions and associations during 1919 ( Finnane 2001). There are also a number of instances of force revolt in the history of Bangladesh such as BDR mutiny in 2009. In 1993, subordinate police officers of Dhaka Metropoliton police at the Rajarbagh Police Lines in Dhaka agitated demanding better working condit ions and increased pay (ICG, 2009). Fortunately, it ended up without any bloodshed and increased salaries but many officers got sacked. In 2009, the paramilitary force Bangladesh Rifles which is also regulated by the same ministry, led a murderous uprising in response to poor working conditionss and low pay leaving more than 75 people dead (ICG 2009). 1.4.3 Rationale of the study: Realization of all the human rights including civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights is nearly impossible without social order (Crashaw 2002). Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights enables everyone to be entitled to the right to social and international order.   It is the police force whose fundamental function is to maintain social order by keeping criminality and social tension or civil unrest at tolerable level through effective policing. The dream of complete policing defined as effective, lawful and humane-would remain a dream only until and unless the police agencies are well managed and well resourced by the respective governments. Only through the promulgation of police code of conduct and ethics, human rights training, monitoring and oversight mechanism will help a little to improve the overall human rights records and performance of the police unless their basic rights remain unheard, unmet and fulfilled. Human rights of more than 150 mil lion people of Bangladesh will also be at risk if police with its limited resources and poor working conditionss fails to maintain social order and stability. 1.4.4 Overview of the study: The real working experiences of one and a half dozen of police officers are explored and analyzed using data obtained from their narratives conversational interviews. With direct reference to the existing available literature, it is attempted to demonstrate that the police members in Bangladesh have also been subject to the violation of economic and social rights in the workplace. But the human rights advocates ignore the close connection between internal and external violation i.e. human rights violation of the police and human rights abuse by the police. As a result, it has been a common practice among the human rights organizations, media and academician to criticize the police-subculture, corruption and lack of human rights training responsible for human rights violation by them. The sufferings and miseries of the police hardly managed to draw attention of the human rights organizations or the academician. The human rights organizations usually end up their duties by suggesting h uman rights training and monitoring mechanism to stop human rights abuses and corruption of the police. Despite the necessity of the human rights training and oversight mechanism, all these efforts may be proved meaningless for them if they do not see the application of those human rights in their practical lives. 1.4.5 Overview of the thesis: The thesis will be presented in six chapters: Chapter One: This chapter presents the background describing my personal view and motivations including primary and secondary objectives. Chapter Two: This chapter briefly describes the study population and the subject area including statistical numbers, facts and figures. Chapter Three: This chapter gives a theoretical and conceptual background of the topic based on existing literature and other secondary source of data. Chapter four: This chapter of methodology and method gives a full description of participant selection, interview process, ethical issues and the challenges to recruitment.   Chapter Five: This chapter explains how data is examined and analyzed to develop the themes expressed by the participants. Chapter Six: In this chapter, Findings are discussed and reviewed with the objectives. This chapter also discusses the implications and limitations of the thesis. 1.4.6 Conclusion: This chapter gives an overall idea on the topic and describes the genesis of the research topic. Personal motivation for undertaking this project and the relevance of the research has also been discussed. It also gives an overview of the research and the chapter outlines. The following chapter discusses about the population under study and the subject area highlighting various aspects of the organization. Chapter two: Demographical and organizational context of the research 2.1 The study population: Bangladesh Police is a national organization with headquarter based in Dhaka. It is answerable to the acting government which controls and oversees the organization under the administrative control by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA). The organization consists of a number of branches and units that mainly include Range and Metropolitan police, traffic, an armed police battalion(APBN), a criminal investigation department (CID), special branch (SB), Rapid Action Battalion (RAB), and training institutions (Shahjahan, 2000). The ‘Range and ‘Metropolitan police are again subdivided into districts, circles, police stations and outposts (Shahjahan 2000, ICG 2009). Bangladesh has a total of 123197 police officers for its over 153 million population (ICG 2009). It means there is only one police officer for more than 1,200 people in Bangladesh. This ratio is probably the lowest ratio among the other South Asian nations, and nearly three times lower than the recommended ratio of 1:450 by the UN (ICG 2009, Appendix C). In some areas for example in Sylhet and Coxbazar district of the country the ratios are 1:3500 and 1: 2000 respectively (ICG 2009). The total force with eighteen ranks can be categorized into gazetted (ASP to IGP) and non-gazetted ranks (Constable to Inspector) which is roughly analogous to commissioned and non-commissioned officers in the military. Subordinate officers with numbers 121,659 have overwhelming majority over the gazetted officers numbering 1538 only (ICG 2009: 8). The Inspector General of Police (IGP), Deputy Inspector General (DIG), Assistant Inspector Generals(AIG) or superintendents of police (SP) and Assistant Superintendent of Police constitute the four gazetted ranks while subordinate ranks include the positions of inspector, sub-inspector, sergeant, and assistant sub-inspector, head constables both armed and unarmed, naiks and constables (ICG 2009:30). Out of 121659 subordinate officers, constables are bulk forces having a figure roughly 88,000. The total number of women police is also very low standing at 1,937 i.e. roughly 1.5 percent in compared to that of other low income countries having 8.5 per cent policewomen (ICG 2009: 9). 2.2 The subject area: In recent years, both the print and electronic media of the country also revealed many facts and figures about the working conditions of the police in Bangladesh. Karzon (2006) in a newspaper article stated that the police in Bangladesh are confronted with many kinds of problem that ranges from weak infrastructure to poor working conditions.Although Bangladesh got independence in 1947 from British rule and got separated from Pakistan in 1971, it has failed to rebuild its police force. The country still retains a colonial system of policing with little change that it inherited from its colonial master ( Karzon, 2006; ). The subsequent governments kept century-old police laws such as the Police Act of 1861; the Evidence Act of 1872; the Criminal Procedure Code of Police of 1898; and Police Regulation of Bengal of 1943 that were primarily devised to deter anti-British movements (Shahjahan, 2000; Karzon, 2006). Many provisions of the outdated laws have flaws and gaps that are inconsisten t with the human rights spirits, rule of law and modern democracy (Karzon, 2006; ICG 2009). Police in Bangladesh particularly the subordinate ranks lead a very difficult and unrewarding life because of deplorable working conditions, abysmal salaries, excessive workload, corrupt and politicized transfer and promotion system (ICG 2009; ). In terms of salary, the top-most police boss draws a monthly salary of Taka 23 000 ($333) while the lowest salary of the organization amounts to Taka 3000 which is just $1.30 a day which is approximately equal to the international poverty line of $1.25 per day (see appendix B). The working hours of the police members are almost double than that of other government employees (Karzon, 2006). It is also reported that they do not have adequate logistic support such as vehicles, prison vans, radios, fuel for vehicles, bicycles, modern weapons and even stationery to write reports (Karzon, 2006; ICG, 2009). Vacation, public holidays, annual and other leaves are rare and unheard and all these problems remain a great source of frustration and low mor ale for the officers (ICG, 2009). The annual budget of $420-million in addition to the resource constrains and staff shortage is simply unable to meet the organizational needs. In a report, another national daily revealed that 99 percent of the policemen blame the poor working conditions and lack of logistic support as major factors that prevent them from performing their duties (The Daily Star, 2007).   It commented that the police members in Bangladesh will continue to lead in human life until and unless salaries are increased, daily work hours are reduced to an acceptable level and all operational costs are met by the government. Referring to Paolo del Mistro, a Police specialist of the UNDP, a newspaper stated, â€Å"the police in Bangladesh are leading unsatisfactory life and they do not enjoy their policing job as it often destroys their self-respect. Moreover, they are not well-equipped† (cited in Azad, 2007).  Ã‚   He blamed the system not the police department fo r the grim working and living conditions. A civil society member in a seminar also stressed the need for increasing the salary and allowances for the police so that the police members change their mindset (The Independent, Bangladesh, 2008). In a round table discussion, another civil society member of the country went further and suggested that police officers with low salaries should be allowed to do other jobs so that they can compensate for the poor pay. He asserted, â€Å"They can not do that as long as their time of duty is not definite† (The Daily Star, August 12, 2007). The police in Bangladesh have a bad reputation for their alleged involvement with corruption and brutality (ICG, 2009). According to Transparency International Bangladesh report, 96.6 per cent of Bangladeshs households experienced some form of corruption that came across with law enforcement agencies (TIB, 2007). Police organization in Bangladesh had been identified as the most corrupt agency among all the government agency (karzon, 2006). A leading national daily of the country in its editorial wrote that the poor working conditions obstruct police to become servant of the people (The daily prothom alo, 2007). It recommended increasing the number of police personnel, vehicle and remuneration of police in addition to improving the poor working condition. Chapter three: Literature Review 3.1 Introduction: This chapter reviews the existing literature and other secondary sources of data that are related to the economic and social rights of police. The complex nature of the issue has been organized into various sections giving different aspects including the causes and consequences if remain unrealized. 3.2 Economic and social rights of police: The concept of human rights of police does not imply a new thought or idea. Rather these are the same rights and benefits to which every citizen is entitled. Referring to police rights, Bruce and Neild asserted: the facts that police are citizens, means they are entitled to the rights, privileges and benefits of citizenship (2005:41). Therefore human rights of police include all the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights (Feiner, 2009; Aitchison, 2004). The rights of police officers are also protected by the same human rights standards enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as well as in the various regional and international human rights charters such as International Covenant on Economic, Social Cultural rights, and European Convention on Human Rights (United Nations 1948; United Nations 1976; ECHR 1950). The economic and social rights of police are also clearly stated and standardized in the European Social Charter 1961 and the European Code of Pol ice Ethics 2001 (ESC 1961; ECPE 2001). Both the charter provides a set of   standards for police officers including reasonable working hours, rest periods and paid holidays, remuneration enabling them to have a decent standard of living, increased overtime payment, health and safety regulations in the workplace and a system of social security considering their special nature and character of work. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights and article 6 of the European Social Charter 1961 recognize the right of the police members to form and join trade unions.   International Labour Organization as a specialized international agency of the United Nations set some international labor standards and fundamental rights at work in its various conventions (ILO 1998). It sets standards determining hours of work, shift work, holidays, vacations, wages, social security and policy, accommodation, trade union, collective bargaining, rest and leisure for the workers to promote strong social policies, justice and democratic institutions. The benefits of the work standards set by ILO are equally applicable to the members of police in their work place. But it is important to make clear that the police officers can claim the rights against the state not other citizens. The failure of the state to protect the rights does not give legitimacy to police to resort to violations of human rights of general people or citizens. Police like other employees of the state are the public servants that serve state interest. As an employee or worker, the human rights of a police officer mainly revolve around the economic and social rights that mainly fall into the following categories: labour rights and the right to adequate standard of living, right to food, right to health, right to housing and right to education (Nel Bezuidenbout, 1997:97). The bulk labour rights include the right to trade union, right to organized and collective bargaining, right to rest and leisure, right to no forced labour, right to work and equal pay for equal work. Bruce and Neild also argued that central to recognizing police as citizens revolve around their right to decent conditions of service, the right to form employee representative organizations, and the right to engage in collective bargaining (2005:43). 3.2.1 Democratic policing versus economic and social rights of police: There is a close link â€Å"between organizational police democracy and societal democracy† where citizens are able to participate in decision-making processes and where basic human rights are protected (Marks Fleming, 2006:179). It means police are likely to respond more democratically and humanly if they also experience the benefits of democratic labor and social rights in their organizational set up (Berkley 1969, 46-51). Hence the right of police officers to engage in direct and indirect forms of democratic participation is crucial to rights based awareness. Police rights movement through democratic police union is also consistent with the advancement of democracy and good governance (Finnane, 2002; Prasad Snel, 2004). Police rights movement is now viewed as a countervailing force and broadcasting agendas for social change directed to establish racial justice, gender equality, and urban change (Berkley, 1969; Johnston, 2000; Robinson, 2000; Sklansky, 2005b; OMalley Hutc hinson, 2005). Police union can be seen as a bulk force for them because through the exercise of this right they might get the recognition of other economic and social rights in the workplace. In addition, police democracy brings not only the democratic benefit for them, rather through democratic police rights movement through police union can serve as a necessary internal check against bureaucratic usurpation within the organization (Gammage Stanley, 1972; Fleming Lewis, 2002:92). Despite all the benefits and importance of police trade union as core labor rights of ILO, it creates more controversy and brings criticism from academics, police managers and public than any other labour union. Police organization that allows police union is branded as ‘obdurate organization by the police scholars as the union engages only on their own vested interests such as workplace improvement and status enhancement rather than social justice features (Fogelson, 1977; OMalley, 2005b; Reiner, 1978). The critics argued that this narrowness or ‘bureaucratic conservatism of police union may thwart democratic aspirations within trade union structures (Hyman, 2000; Prasad et al 2004; Burgmann Burgmann, 1998:63). 3.2.2 Positive development towards police rights: A significant change is occurring in the police organizations across the world through the ‘privatization, civilianization, and responsibilization of policing (Marks Fleming, 2006: 193). International Labour Organization recognizes all the employment rights of the police officers except few restrictions for the emergency services (ILO 2004). But in a recent move, the ILO develops codes of practice to promote social dialogue within the public service including emergency service too. In a joint meeting on public emergency service (such as police) in 2003, The ILO adopted a document Guidelines on Social Dialogue for Public Emergency Services in a Changing Environment to promote fundamental labor rights such as the right to form and join trade union,   and collective bargaining. Thus these guidelines of ILO give an indication to its member states to allow the police to unionize and to bargain (ILO 2003a). The international network of police unions has also been attempted to pers uade the ILO to review its conventions (Mark Fleming, 2006).   They quoted Shizue Tomoda, an ILO technical specialist, as saying, â€Å"As long as a large number of member states feel that it is proper for police labor rights to be regulated by national laws, the ILO Secretariat can do little to change the status quo.†(p.189). In parallel with ILO prescription, many nations have promulgated special legislations that enable police officers to be entitled to all the citizenship rights including police union for instance, Police Officers Bill of Rights of USA; the European Social Charter and European Code of Police Ethics in Europe. The modern policing are now centered on the principle of more democracy, more accountability, more equitability, and more professionalism. Police organization within public sector is now defined as growing labor-intensive industry that enables police to be qualified as ‘worker having all the labour rights (Mark Fleming, 2006). Hence, being a member of a labor-intensive industry, they are also equally concerned about the working conditionss and wages (Wellington Winter, 1969; Reiner, 1978).The current global socio-economic climate leads police unions and public sector unions to work more closely with the labour movement in terms of their rights to collective bargaining (Reiner, 1978). EUROCOP, an association of twenty-seven member police organizations across Europe, is also promoting fairness and equal opportunities in the police service of its member organizations (Marks Fleming 2006).   Berkley (1969:46-51) also mentioned about the highly developed police unions across th e Europe such as in Germany, France, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Griffin (2001), Chief executive officer of the Canadian Professional Police Association noted that the police representatives in Canada are now a part of broad labor union body (Fleming Lewis, 2002). In the United States, Police unions go beyond the narrow interest of the police members promoting the public interests agenda consistent with community preferences in partnership with other police union partner (Magenau Hunt, 1996).   The police federation of Australia is also affiliated and aligned with the national trade union federation (Marks Fleming, 2006). Some unions of Australia (for example, the Northern Territory Police Association NTPA) are now playing a very significant and central role to solve the resource problem of the aboriginal territory. In South Africa, the Police and Prisons Civil Rights Union (POPCRU) established in 1989 is also affiliated to the progressive trade union federation committed t o democratic governance. They defend the socio-economic interests of the communities which is now well-recognized by the international human rights organizations (Marks Fleming, 2004). Police in Lesotho, Zambia, and Botswana who were denied the police rights, called upon the South African police union, POPCRU, to assist them in convincing police authorities and managers about the benefits of police unionization (Hopkins, 2004). 3.3 Theoretical framework: 3.3.1 Occupational police stress: A number of books, reviews of literature and public seminars on the study of the stressful nature of work indicate the growing interest in the field over the past 45 years across the world including America, Britain, Australia and New Zealand (Hurrell, Nelson, Simmons , Buunk de Wolff, 1992; Fried, 1993; Huddleston, 2002). One of the main reasons behind the interest is work-related stress causes huge human and monetary cost (Schuler Van Sell, 1981; Cooper Marshall, 1976; Levi, 1981; Moss, 1981 cited in Parker DeCotiis, 1983). The recent years have also witnessed ‘a sizeable body of literature that examines police stress from a variety of perspective (Webb Smith, 1980:251). This study will look into the police stress from human rights approach taking its physiological, psychological and organizational consequences into account. Even though a certain levels of stress are found in almost all occupations, police work has long been termed as a high stress, high strain and â₠¬Ëœcritical profession (Anshel, 2000, Brown Campbell, 1994; Horn, 1991; Kroes, 1976; Kroes Hurrell, 1975; Raiser, 1974; Reilly DiAngelo, 1990; Violanti Marshall, 1983, Paton 1996a). They are usually the first to reach and the last to leave the scenes of murder, suicides or accidents. One police psychologist stated: â€Å"It is an accepted fact that a police officer is under stress and pressure unequaled by any other profession† (cited in Webb Smith 1980:255). They are frequently confronted with very sad and violent categories of incidents (Carlier, 1999, Carlier Gersons, 1992) and ‘hidden victims of work-related psychological trauma (Paton, 1989, 1994b). Apart from the aforementioned intrinsic job stress, the police stressors may range from critical staff shortage to interaction in and outside the organization. Police stressors within the organization may be characterized as excessive workload, staff shortage, work interfering with family, poor or inadequate equipment or resources, seeing criminals go free and inadequate pay, uncivil interaction with co-workers and administrative hassles (Collins Gibbs, 2003; Davey, Obst, Sheehan, 2001; Morash, Haarr, Kwak, 2006; Pasillas, Follette, Perumean-Chaney, 2006, Huddleston 2002). Rigid organizational structure, shift work, excessive overtime, lack of opportunities for the advancement, workplace discrimination or harassment, administrative pressure to solve the problem, and conflicts over role and responsibility, job transfer, daily hassles, work-related disasters   can also cause serious police stress (Collins Gibbs, 2003; Brown Campbell 1994; Sewell 1993; Pratt Barling, 1988). A p olice officer without the support of his or her family or friend and personal skills is more vulnerable to police stressors (Dewe Guest, 1990; Latach Havlovic, 1992; Tho